tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21743723925716032792024-03-05T01:43:22.341-08:00ROMAPEDIATHE LARGEST ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE ART AND HISTORY OF ROMEDavid Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.comBlogger1396125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-2809099898441598432020-11-16T09:00:00.003-08:002020-11-16T09:00:25.635-08:00ROMAPEDIA'S BIBLIOGRAPHY<p><a name="_Toc441140134"><span lang="EN-US"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Main
Sources</span></b></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - ROMA - Roma 2008 - Touring Club
Italiano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - LAZIO - Touring Club Italiano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Filippo Coarelli - ROMA - Bari 2008 - Guide
Archeologiche Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - ROMA SACRA, Guida alle chiese della
città eterna - Elio de Rosa <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA, Guida alle antichità
della città eterna - Elio de Rosa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - GUIDA GENERALE ALLA CITTÀ DEL
VATICANO - Milano 2012 - Jaca Book<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - ENCICLOPEDIA TRECCANI - Roma
1925/2012 - Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - DIZIONARIO BIOGRAFICO DEGLI ITALIANI
- Roma 1925/2012 - Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. – ENCICLOPEDIA DELL’ARTE ANTICA - Roma
1958/2012 - Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mario Torelli, Mauro Menichetti & Gian
Luca Grassigli - ARTE E ARCHEOLOGIA DEL MONDO ROMANO - Longanesi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - GUIDE RIONALI DI ROMA - Roma 1973/98
- Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Marco Bussagli - ROMA, L'Arte nei
Secoli - Udine 1999 - Magnus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mariano Vasi e Antonio Nibby – ITINERARIO DI
ROMA E DELLE SUE VICINANZE - Roma 1827<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Enrico Parlato e Serena Romano - ROMA E LAZIO,
IL ROMANICO - 2001 - Palombi, Jaca Book<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Irene de Guttry - GUIDA DI ROMA MODERNA - De
Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giorgio Muratore - ROMA, GUIDA
ALL'ARCHITETTURA - Roma 2007 - “L'ERMA” di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Piero Ostilio Rossi - ROMA, GUIDA ALL'ARCHITETTURA
MODERNA 1909-2011 - Bari 2012 - Laterza <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mauro Lucentini - LA GRANDE GUIDA DI ROMA -
Roma 1999 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Provincia di Roma - ROMA & PIÙ, Un viaggio
nella Provincia - 2007 - Herald<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carlo Bertelli, Giuliano Briganti, Antonio
Giuliano - STORIA DELL'ARTE ITALIANA VOL. I, II, III & IV - Electa Bruno
Mondadori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giulio Carlo Argan - STORIA DELL'ARTE ITALIANA
- Sansoni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">André Chastel - STORIA DELL'ARTE ITALIANA -
Bari 1983 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jennie Ellis
Keysor - GREAT ARTISTS - Hamburg 2012 - Tredition Classics<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Rudolf Wittkower - ARTE E ARCHITETTURA IN
ITALIA 1600-1750 - 1958 - Einaudi <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Rudolf Wittkower - LA SCULTURA RACCONTATA DA
RUDOLF WITTKOWER - 1977 - Einaudi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Bruna Zevi - STORIA E CONTROSTORIA DELL'ARCHITETTURA
IN ITALIA - Roma 1997 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giorgio De Marchis - L'ARTE ITALIANA DOPO LA
SECONDA GUERRA MONDIALE per la “Storia dell'arte” - Torino 1982 - Einaudi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Federico Zeri - UN VELO DI SILENZIO - 1999 -
Rizzoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Federico Zeri - ABECEDARIO PITTORICO - Milano
2007 - Longanesi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Flavio Caroli - LA STORIA DELL’ARTE RACCONTATA
DA FLAVIO CAROLI - Milano 2001 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Adam Ziolkowski - STORIA DI ROMA - 2000 -
Bruno Mondadori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Andrea Giardina - ROMA ANTICA - Bari
2000 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">P.A. Brunt
- THE FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC - Oxford 1988 - Clarendon Press<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Peter
Heather - THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE A new history - 2005 - PAN<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Marta Sordi - I CRISTIANI E L'IMPERO ROMANO -
Milano 2004 - Jaca Book<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Anthony
Everitt - HADRIAN AND THE TRIUMPH OF ROME - 2009 - Random House New York<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Adrian
Goldsworthy - IN THE NAME OF ROME - 2003 - Weidenfeld and Nicolson - Orion
House<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Richard Krautheimer - ROMA PROFILO DI UNA
CITTÀ 312-1308 - Edizioni dell'Elefante<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di André Vauchez - ROMA MEDIEVALE - Bari
2001 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Pietro Tomei - L'ARCHITETTURA A ROMA NEL
QUATTROCENTO - Roma 1942 - Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Rudolf Wittkower - PRINCIPI ARCHITETTONICI
NELL'ETÀ DELL'UMANESIMO - Torino 2007 - Einaudi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Bernard Berenson - I PITTORI ITALIANI DEL
RINASCIMENTO - Rizzoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Hermann Voss - LA PITTURA DEL TARDO
RINASCIMENTO a Roma e Firenze - Roma 2007 - Donzelli <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Antonio Pinelli - ROMA DEL
RINASCIMENTO - Bari 2001 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonio Pinelli - LA BELLA MANIERA Artisti del
Cinquecento tra regola e licenza - Einaudi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paolo Liverani - TOPOGRAFIA ANTICA DEL
VATICANO - Città del Vaticano 1999 - Edizioni Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Peter Murray - L'ARCHITETTURA DEL RINASCIMENTO
ITALIANO - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giovanni Baglione - LE VITE DE' PITTORI,
SCULTORI, ARCHITETTI - II ed. 1642 Roma<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Fabio Benzi - SISTO IV RENOVATOR URBIS.
ARCHITETTURA A ROMA 1471-1484 - Roma 1990 - Officina Edizioni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Jacques Heers - LA VITA QUOTIDIANA NELLA ROMA
PONTIFICIA AI TEMPI DEI BORGIA E DEI MEDICI (1420-1520) - Milano 1988 - Rizzoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Stefano Borsi - ROMA DI SISTO V La pianta di
Antonio Tempesta, 1593 - Roma 1986 - Officina Edizioni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Stefano Borsi - ROMA DI URBANO VIII La pianta
di Giovanni Maggi, 1625 - Roma 1990 - Officina Edizioni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Alessandro Angelini - LA SCULTURA DEL SEICENTO
A ROMA - 2005 - 5 Continents Editions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Francesco Galluzzi - IL BAROCCO - Roma -
Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonio Muñoz - ROMA BAROCCA - Milano 1919 -
Bestetti e Tumminelli <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paolo Portoghesi - ROMA BAROCCA - Roma 1966<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Richard Krautheimer - ROMA DI ALESSANDRO VII -
Roma 1985 - Edizioni dell'Elefante<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A cura di
Susan M. Dixon - ITALIAN BAROQUE ART - Oxford 2008 - Blackwell Publishing<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giancarlo Sestieri - LA PITTURA DEL SETTECENTO
- Torino 1992 - Garzanti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giancarlo Sestieri - REPERTORIO DELLA PITTURA
ROMANA DELLA FINE DEL SEICENTO E DEL SETTECENTO - Torino 1994 - Garzanti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Leopoldo Cicognara – DEL BELLO, ragionamenti
di Leopoldo Cicognara - 1808 Firenze - Molini, Landi e C.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Silvestra Bietoletti e Michele Dantini -
L'OTTOCENTO ITALIANO La Storia, gli Artisti, le Opere - Firenze 2002 - Giunti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Silvestra Bietoletti - I MACCHIAIOLI La
Storia, gli Artisti, le Opere - Firenze 2001 - Giunti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mario Quesada, Pasqualina Spadini e Rossana
Bossaglia - SECESSIONE ROMANA 1913-1916 - Roma 1987 - Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maurizio Fagiolo Dell'Arco, Valerio
Rivosecchi, Emily Braun - SCUOLA ROMANA Artisti tra le due guerre - Milano 1998
- Mazzotta<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. A cura del Centro Studi del T.C.I. -
DOSSIER MUSEI 2009 - Roma 2009 - Touring Club Italiano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Luciano Zeppegno - I RIONI DI ROMA - 1978 Roma
- Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - PALAZZI DI ROMA, le sue ville e le
altre architetture civili - Roma 2010 - Iride per il Terzo Millennio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mariano Armellini - LE CHIESE DI ROMA DALLE
LORO ORIGINI SINO AL SECOLO XVI - Roma 1887<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mario Escobar - LE CHIESE SCONOSCIUTE DI ROMA
- Roma 1992 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - CHIESA OGGI Architettura e
Comunicazione - Milano - Di Baio Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carlo Ceschi - LE CHIESE DI ROMA DAFGLI INIZI
DEL NEOCLASSICO AL 1961 - Padova 1963 - Cappelli Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Massimo Alemanno - LE CHIESE DI ROMA MODERNA
Volumi 1, 2 & 3 - Roma 2010 - Armando Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paola Hoffman - LE VILLE DI ROMA E
DINTORNI - Roma 2001 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sergio Delli -LE FONTANE DI ROMA - Roma 1972 -
Schwarz & Meyer Ed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Bruno Brizzi - LE FONTANE DI ROMA - Roma 1987
- Colombo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cesare D'Onofrio - ROMA VISTA DA ROMA - Roma
1967 - Edizioni Liber<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cesare D'Onofrio - LE FONTANE DI ROMA - Roma
1957- Staderini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cesare D'Onofrio - SCALINATE DI ROMA - Roma
1973 - Staderini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cesare D'Onofrio - RENOVATIO ROMAE - Roma 1973
- Staderini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cristina Zadro - GLI OBELISCHI DI ROMA - Roma
2007 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Vincenzo Fiocchi Nicolai, Fabrizio Bisconti,
Danilo Mazzoleni - LE CATACOMBE CRISTIANE DI ROMA Origini, sviluppo, apparati
decorativi, documentazione epigrafica - Regensburg 2009 - Schnell & Steiner<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Vincenzo Fiocchi Nicolai - I CIMITERI
PALEOCRISTIANI DEL LAZIO - Città del Vaticano 1988<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Leonella De Santis e Giuseppe Biamonte - LE
CATACOMBE DI ROMA - Roma 1997 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Claudio Rendina - LA GRANDE GUIDA DEI
MONUMENTI DI ROMA - Roma 2006 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Italo De Tuddo - CALENDARIO ROMANO - Roma 1970
- Golem<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Willy Pocino - LE CURIOSITÀ DI ROMA - Roma
1985 - Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mario dell'Arco - ROMA CAPRICCIOSA - Roma 1967
- Il Nuovo Cracas<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carlo Cirillo Fornili - DELINQUENTI E
CARCERATI A ROMA ALLA METÀ DEL '600 - Roma 1991 - Editrice Pontificia
Università Gregoriana<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Elio Lo Cascio - ROMA IMPERIALE Una
metropoli antica - Carocci<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Rodolfo Lanciani - FORMA URBIS ROMAE - Milano
1893/1901<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carmelo Calci - ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA - Roma 2005
- Adnkronos<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli - ROMA, L'ARTE
ROMANA NEL CENTRO DEL POTERE - 1969 – Rizzoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paolo Moreno - SCULTURA ELLENISTICA - Roma
1994 - Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli - ROMA, LA FINE
DELL'ARTE ANTICA - 1970 - Rizzoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR;">École française
de Rome - MEFRA: Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: antiquité - Roma 2010<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">William
Smith - A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES - London 1875 - John
Murray<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ivana Della Portella – ROMA SOTTERRANEA -
Arsenale Editrice<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Boris De Rachewiltz e Anna Maria Partini -
ROMA EGIZIA - Roma 1999 - Edizioni Mediterranee<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Anna Maria Ramieri - I SERVIZI PUBBLICI,
Collana Vita e costumi dei romani antichi - Roma 1996 - Edizioni Quasar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Vittorio Vidotto - ROMA CAPITALE -
Bari 2002 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Cesare D'Onofrio – IL TEVERE - Roma 1980 -
Romana Soc. Ed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giuliano Malizia - I PONTI DI ROMA - Roma 1994
- Newton Compton<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Anthony Majanlahti e Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi -
ROMA OCCUPATA 1943 - 1944 Itinerari, storie, immagini - Milano 2010 - Il
Saggiatore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A cura di
John Campbell - THE EXPERIENCE OF WORLD WAR II - Oxford 1989 - Andromeda Oxford
Ltd.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Andrea Carandini, Luciano Canfora, Andrea
Giardina, Alessandro Barbero, Antonio Pinelli, Anna Foa, Vittorio Vidotto,
Emilio Gentile, Alessandro Portelli - I GIORNI DI ROMA - Bari 2011 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Gaia Remiddi, Antonella Greco, Antonella
Bonavita e Paola Ferri - IL MODERNO ATTRAVERSO ROMA, 200 architetture scelte -
2000 - Groma Quaderni, Palombi & Partner<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Achille Ippolito e Mario Pagnotta - ROMA
COSTRUITA - Roma 1982 - Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ettore Maria Mazzola - “CONTRO STORIA”
DELL’ARCHITETTURA MODERNA: IL CASO DI ROMA - Firenze 2004 - Alinea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ghisi Grütter - APPUNTI SULL'ARCHITETTURA
ROMANA DEGLI ANNI VENTI E TRENTA - Roma 2012 - Ticonzero<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Vittorio Franchetti Pardo -
L'ARCHITETTURA NELLE CITTÀ ITALIANE DEL XX SECOLO - Milano 2003 - Editoriale
Jaca Book<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Luigi Prestinenza Puglisi - Articolo su
EDILIZIA E TERRITORIO n°3 - 2007 - Il Sole 24 Ore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Emanuela Montelli – TECNICHE COSTRUTTIVE
MURARIE MEDIEVALI. Mattoni e laterizi in Roma e nel Lazio fra X e XV sec. -
Roma 2011 - L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lucia Calzona - PERCORSI DELLA SPIRITUALITÀ
Guida al patrimonio religioso dei Castelli Romani e Prenestini - Roma 2008 - De
Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Tito Livio - AB URBE CONDITA LIBRI<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Filippo Coarelli - ITALIA CENTRALE - Bari 1985
- Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giorgio Bejor, Marina Castoldi, Claudia
Lambrugo - ARTE GRECA - Mondadori Università<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Georgios
Despinis – SCULPTURE FROM ARCADIA AND LACONIA - Oxford 1993<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">John Griffiths Pedley - ARTE E ARCHEOLOGIA
GRECA - Libreria dello Stato<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Wolfgang Pircher - Eva di Stefano in
DEBUT EINES JAHRHUNDERTS. ESSAY ZUR WIENER MODERNE - Vienna 1985 - Falter<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">romeartlover.it, archeoroma.com,
romasegreta.it, ostiaantica.net, parchilazio.it, palazzidiroma.it<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT"><br /></span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: large;"><a name="_Toc414995101"></a><a name="_Toc441140135"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995101;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Catalogues of
museums and monographic books about churches, palaces and monuments</span></span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995101;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paolo Moreno e Chiara Stefani - GALLERIA
BORGHESE - 2000 - Touring Club Italiano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sovraintendenza ai Beni Culturali del Comune
di Roma - MUSEI CAPITOLINI Guida - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sergio Guarino, Patrizia Masini - LA
PINACOTECA CAPITOLINA - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi ed Elena
Tassi Scandone - LA LEX DE IMPERIO VESPASIANI E LA ROMA DEI FLAVI Atti del
Convegno Roma 20-22 novembre 2008 - Roma 2009 - L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Andrea Pomella - MUSEI VATICANI - Città del
Vaticano 2007 - Edizioni Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Adele Breda, Francesco Buranelli, Guido
Cornini, Maria Antonietta De Angelis, Anna Maria De Strobel, Arnold Nesselrath,
Cristina Pantanella - LA PINACOTECA VATICANA Catalogo dell'esposizione - Città
del Vaticano 2008 - Edizioni Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Carlo Pietrangeli - I DIPINTI DEL
VATICANO - Udine 1996 - Magnus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Heinrich W. Pfeiffer - LA SISTINA SVELATA
Iconografia di un capolavoro - 2007 - Jaca Book<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Francesco Buranelli e Allen Duston -
THE FIFTEETH CENTURY FRESCOES IN THE SISTINE CHAPEL - Roma 2003 - Edizioni
Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Gianfranco Malafarina - LA GALLERIA
DELLE CARTE GEOGRAFICHE IN VATICANO - 2005 - Franco Cosimo Panini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Innocenzo Venchi, Renate L. Colella, Arnold
Nesselrath, Carlo Giantomassi and Donatella Zari - FRA' ANGELICO AND THE CHAPEL
OF NICHOLAS V - Roma 1999 - Edizioni Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ercole G. Massi - Descrizione compendiosa dei
Musei dell'antica scultura greca e romana nel Palazzo vaticano - Roma 1894 -
Cuggiani <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - LA SALA DELL’IMMACOLATA DI FRANCESCO
PODESTI. Storia di una committenza e di un restauro curato da Micol Forti -
Città del Vaticano 2010 - Edizioni Musei Vaticani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mirko Stocchi - TESORO DI SAN PIETRO IN
VATICANO Guida al museo storico-artistico - Città del Vaticano 2009 - ATS
Italia Editrice, Edizioni Capitolo Vaticano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maria Grazia D'Amelio - ANNALI DI ARCHITETTURA
Gian Lorenzo Bernini e gli ori del baldacchino di San Pietro in Vaticano: la
doratura secentesca e il suo restauro - Vicenza 2009 - Centro Internazionale di
Studi di Architettura Andrea Palladio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lorenza Mochi Onori e Rossella Vodret - GUIDA
ALLA GALLERIA NAZIONALE D'ARTE ANTICA - Roma 1998 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lorenza Mochi Onori - GALLERIA NAZIONALE
D'ARTE ANTICA, dipinti del '700 - Roma 2007 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Sandra Pinto - GALLERIA NAZIONALE
D'ARTE MODERNA XIX sec. e XX sec. - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Vittoria Marini Clarelli,
Martina De Luca e Giovanna Coltelli - GALLERIA NAZIONALE D'ARTE MODERNA DALLA A
ALLA Z - 2011 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Luciana Del Buono - IL PALAZZO DEL
QUIRINALE La storia, le sale e le collezioni - Roma 2006 - FMR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lucia Guerrini e Carlo Gasparri - Il Palazzo
del Quirinale: catalogo delle sculture - Roma 1993 - L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Sivigliano Alloisi - GUIDA ALLA
GALLERIA CORSINI - 2000 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sivigliano Alloisi - PERSONAGGI E INTERPRETI
Ritratti della Collezione Corsini - Roma 2001 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sivigliano Alloisi - ARCADIE E VECCHI MERLETTI
Paesaggi della Collezione Corsini - Roma 2002 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Lucrezia Vicini - GUIDA ALLA
GALLERIA SPADA - 1998 - Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Giulia Barberini e Maria
Selene Sconci - GUIDA AL MUSEO NAZIONALE DEL PALAZZO VENEZIA - Roma 2009 -
Gebart<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Francesca Cappelletti e Andrea De Marchi -
NUOVA GUIDA ALLA GALLERIA DORIA PAMPHILJ - 1993 - Àrgos<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Eduard A. Safarik - GALLERIA COLONNA
IN ROMA - Roma 2006 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Isabella Salvagni - PALAZZO CARPEGNA - Roma
2001 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Nunzio Giustozzi - CASTEL
SANT'ANGELO - 2008 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Adriano La Regina - PALAZZO MASSIMO
ALLE TERME - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Marina Bertoletti, Maddalena Cima e Emilia
Talamo - CENTRALE MONTEMARTINI Musei Capitolini - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lucrezia Ungaro - MUSEO DEI FORI IMPERIALI,
MERCATI DI TRAIANO Guida - Milano 2008 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Francesco Scoppola e Stella Diana Vordemann -
PALAZZO ALTEMPS - 1997 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - CRYPTA BALBI - 2000 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Anna Maria Moretti Sgubini - IL
MUSEO NAZIONALE ETRUSCO DI VILLA GIULIA - Roma 1999 - L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Filippo Coarelli - IL CAMPO MARZIO - Roma 1996
- Edizioni Quasar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - PANTHEON Storia e futuro - Roma 2007
- Gangemi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Orietta Rossini - ARA PACIS - Milano 2006 -
Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Marina Magnani Cianetti e Carlo Pavolini - LA
BASILICA COSTANTINIANA DI S. AGNESE - Milano 2004 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sandro Carletti - GUIDA DELLE CATACOMBE DI
PRISCILLA - Roma 1981 - Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Anne Bedon - IL CAMPIDOGLIO Storia di un
monumento civile nella Roma papale - Milano 2008 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Rossella Leone e Federica Pirani -
IL MUSEO DI ROMA RACCONTA LA CITTÀ - Roma 2005 - Gangemi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonella Pampalone - IL PALAZZO DELLA
SAPIENZA - 2010 - Iride per il Terzo Millennio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Marcello Barbanera e Agneta Freccero
- Collezione di Antichità di Palazzo Lancellotti ai Coronari - Roma 2008 -
L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giovanni Antonazzi - IL PALAZZO DI PROPAGANDA
FIDE - Roma 2005 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Gennaro Farina - PALAZZO VALENTINI -
Roma 1985 - Editalia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - IL PALAZZO DELLA MARINA - Roma 1995<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Soprintendenza ai Beni Culturali del Comune di
Roma - IL MUSEO NAPOLEONICO - 2004 - Gangemi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sovraintendenza ai Beni Culturali del Comune
di Roma - VILLA BORGHESE - Roma 2000 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Alberta Campitelli - VILLA TORLONIA
Guida - 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Gianfranco Malafarina - LA VILLA
FARNESINA A ROMA - 2003 - Franco Cosimo Panini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Sofia Bilotta e Alessio Rosati -
MAXXI - 2010 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Valeria Annecchino - LA BASILICA DI SANT’AGOSTINO
IN CAMPO MARZIO - Genova 2007 - Edizioni d'Arte Marconi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Laura Russo - SANTA MARIA IN ARACOELI - 2007 -
Elio de Rosa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Guglielmo Matthiae - SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI
- Roma 1982 - Ist. Naz. di Studi Romani<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Guglielmo Matthiae - SANTA MARIA DELLA
VITTORIA - Roma 1965 - Marietti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Enzo Bentivoglio e Simonetta Valtieri – SANTA
MARIA DEL POPOLO A ROMA - Roma 1976 - Bardi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Cristina Marchei - S. MARIA IN
TRASTEVERE - 1999 - Silvana Editoriale<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura dello Studio FORME - BREVE GUIDA DI
SANT'AGNESE IN AGONE - Edigraf Editoriale<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Costanza Barbieri, Sofia Barchiesi e Daniele
Ferrara - S. MARIA IN VALLICELLA - 1995 - Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giuseppe Massimi - LA CHIESA DI S. MARIA IN
COSMEDIN (IN SCHOLA GRECA) - Roma 1989<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Alia Engle - CAELIUS: SANTA MARIA IN
DOMNICA, SAN TOMMASO IN FORMIS E IL CLIVUS SCAURI - Roma 2003 - L'Erma di
Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sivigliano Alloisi e Luisa Cardilli - SANTO
SPIRITO IN SAXIA - 2002 - Palombi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Renato Pisani e Giuseppe Valeri - LA BASILICA
DI SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI E DEI MARTIRI Guida Storico-Artistica - 2008 - Il
Cigno GG<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Valentina Oliva - LA BASILICA DI
SANTA CECILIA - 2004 - Edizioni d'Arte Marconi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maria Elena Bertoldi - SAN LORENZO IN LUCINA -
2008 - Edizioni d'Arte Marconi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Leonard
Boyle O. P. - A SHORT GUIDE TO ST. </span><span lang="IT">CLEMENT'S - 1989 - Roma<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonio Menegaldo e Vincenzo Francia -
BASILICA DI SANT'EUSTACHIO IN CAMPO MARZIO - Roma 2004<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Elvira Cajano - IL SISTEMA DEI FORTI MILITARI
DI ROMA - Roma 2006 - Gangemi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - PALAZZI DELL'INA E DELL'INPS in EUR
GUIDA DEGLI ISTITUTI CULTURALI - Milano 1995 - Leonardo Arte <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Elisabetta Procida - LA SEDE STORICA
DELL’INAIL a Roma Il Palazzo in Via IV Novembre - Roma 2009 – INAIL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonello Anappo - IL PONTE MORANDI Monografia
- Roma 2002 - Fondo Riva Portuense<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Mario Pisani - PIAZZA SANT'IGNAZIO Un
capolavoro inaspettato - Melfi 2011 - Libria<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carlo Pavolini - OSTIA - Bari 2006 - Guide
Archeologiche Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lorenzo Quilici - VIA APPIA Da Porta Capena ai
Colli Albani - Roma 1989 - Fratelli Palombi Editori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lorenzo Quilici - LA VIA LATINA Da Roma a
Castel Savelli - Roma 1978 - Bulzoni Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Lorenzo Quilici - La VIA PRENESTINA I suoi
monumenti i suoi paesaggi - Roma 1977 - Bulzoni Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Patrizia Gioia e Rita Volpe -
CENTOCELLE: Roma S.D.O. le indagini archeologiche, Volume 1 - Roma 2004 -
Rubettino Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Pierpaolo Belardi e Luigi secondo Gioggi -
TESTACCIO CUORE DI ROMA - Roma 2010 - Castelvecchi Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura del Gruppo Archeologico Latino Colli
Albani “Bruno Martellotta” - L'ABBAZIA GRECA DI GROTTAFERRATA - Roma 2006 - De
Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Claudio Giumelli - I MONUMENTI
BENEDETTINI DI SUBIACO - Milano 2002 - Editrice Santa Scolastica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sandra Gatti e Nadia Agnoli - PALESTRINA,
SANTUARIO DELLA FORTUNA PRIMIGENIA E MUSEO ARCHEOLOGICO PRENESTINO - 2001 -
Libreria dello Stato<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Benedetta Adembri - VILLA ADRIANA - 2000 -
Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Luciana Drago Troccoli - CERVETERI - 2006 -
Libreria dello Stato<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT"><br /></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140136"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Monographic
books about artists</span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">John
Shearman - STUDI SU RAFFAELLO - Milano 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Arnaldo Bruschi - BRAMANTE - Londra 1977 -
Thames and Hudson<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Massimiliano Capati - LEONARDO Una biografia
pittorica - Firenze 2009 - Mandragora<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Frank Zöllner, Christof Thoenes - MICHELANGELO
VITA E OPERE - Taschen<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Antonio Forcellino - MICHELANGELO Una vita
inquieta - Bari 2005 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Howard
Hibbard - CARLO MADERNO AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE - University Park 1971 - Penn
State Univesity Press<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Anna Coliva - DOMENICHINO - Firenze 1996 -
Giunti Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Rudolf Wittkower - GIAN LORENZO BERNINI - 1981
- Phaidon, London<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maurizio e Marcello Fagiolo Dell'Arco -
BERNINI - 1967 - Bulzoni, Roma<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Howard
Hibbard - BERNINI - 1965 - Pelican Books - Penguin Books<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Anna Coliva - BERNINI SCULTORE - Roma 1998 –
De Luca Editore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Tomaso Montanari - GIAN LORENZO BERNINI - Roma
2004 - Gruppo Editoriale l'Espresso<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Paolo Portoghesi - BORROMINI ARCHITETTURA COME
LINGUAGGIO - Roma 1967<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Roberto Longhi - CARAVAGGIO - Editori Riuniti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Bernard Berenson - DEL CARAVAGGIO: delle sue
incongruenze e della sua fama - Milano 1954 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Peter Robb - M, L’ENIGMA CARAVAGGIO -
Mondadori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maurizio Fagiolo dell'Arco - L'IMMAGINE AL
POTERE Vita di Giovan Lorenzo Bernini - Bari 2001 - Laterza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Maurizio Fagiolo dell'Arco - PIETRO DA CORTONA
E I “CORTONESCHI” - 2001 - Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Evelina Borea - GIAN DOMENICO CERRINI. Opere e
documenti, in “Prospettiva”, gennaio 1978, n. 12<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Raffaele Monti - GIOVANNI FATTORI 1825 1908 -
Livorno 2002 - Sillabe<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Adolfo Venturi - ARMANDO SPADINI,
duecentocinquantasei tavole con uno studio e il catalogo dell'opera a cura di
Emilio Cecchi - Milano 1927 – Mondadori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Ugo Ojetti – LO SCULTORE ADOLFO WILDT – 1926 –
Rivista Dedalo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Ruggero Lenci - STUDIO PASSARELLI
cento anni, cento progetti - Milano 2006 - Electa Mondadori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Sergio Lenci - LUCIO PASSARELLI E LO STUDIO
PASSARELLI - Bari 1983 - Edizioni Dedalo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mosette
Broderick - TRIUMVIRATE: McKIM, MEAD & WHITE - New York 2010 - Knopf<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Gerardo Doti, Maria Luisa Neri, Zsuzsanna
Ordasi, Maria Grazia Turco - UN ARCHITETTO UNGHERESE A ROMA: JÓZSEF VÁGÓ
1920/26 - Roma 2009 - Aracne<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Giancarlo Cataldi - SAVERIO
MURATORI, architetto: il pensiero e l'opera - Firenze 1991 - Alinea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Carlo Broggi - LA MIA OPERA ARCHITETTONICA DAL
1919 AL 1929 - Ginevra 1930 - Biblioteca Capitolina<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Giorgio Muratore - FRANCESCO FARIELLO,
ARCHITETTO - Avellino 1995<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A cura di
Barbara Rose - POLLOCK: PAINTING - New York (1980) - Agrinde Publications Ltd<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140137"><span lang="IT"><span style="font-size: large;">Catalogues of exhibitions</span></span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Mario Torelli e Anna Maria Moretti -
ETRUSCHI Le antiche metropoli del Lazio - Milano 2008 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Filippo Coarelli - DIVUS VESPASIANUS
Il bimillenario dei Flavi - Milano 2009 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Giovanni Gentili - GIULIO CESARE
L'uomo, le imprese, il mito - 2008 - Silvana Editoriale<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Eugenio La Rocca, Serena Ensoli,
Stefano Tortorella e Massimiliano Papini - ROMA. La pittura di un Impero - 2009
– Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Eugenio La Rocca, Claudio Parisi
Presicce, Annalisa Lo Monaco – L’ETÀ DELL’ANGOSCIA Da Commodo a Diocleziano
(180 – 305 d.C.) – Roma 2015 – Mondo Mostre<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Paolo Liverani - I COLORI DEL BIANCO
Mille anni di colore nella scultura antica - Roma 2004 - De Luca Editori d'Arte
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Francesco Buranelli, Arnold
Nasselrath, Paolo Liverani - LAOCOONTE. ALLE ORIGINI DEI MUSEI VATICANI - Roma
2006 - L'Erma di Bretschneider<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Angelo Bottini - MUSA PENSOSA -
Milano 2006 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Adriano La Regina - SANGUE E ARENA -
Milano 2001 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Paolo Biscottini, Gemma Sena Chiesa
e Mariarosaria Barbera - COSTANTINO 313 d.C. - Milano 2012 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A cura di Susan Walker, Morris
Bierbrier, Paul Roberts e John Taylor – MUMMY PORTRAITS FROM ROMAN EGYPT -
London 1997 - British Museum Press<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Anna Cavallaro e Stefano Petrocchi -
ANTONIAZZO ROMANO Pictor Urbis - Milano 2013 - Silvana Editoriale<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Marcello Fagiolo e Paolo Portoghesi
- ROMA BAROCCA Bernini, Borromini, Pietro da Cortona - Milano 2006 -Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Richard Bösel e Christoph L. Frommel
- BORROMINI E L'UNIVERSO BAROCCO - Milano 1999 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Claudio Strinati - CARAVAGGIO - 2010
- Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - PITTURA BAROCCA ROMANA Dal Cavalier
d'Arpino a Fratel Pozzo. La collezione Fagiolo - 1999 – SKIRA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Lucia Mannini, Anna Mazzanti,
Ludovica Sebregondi, Carlo Sisi – BELLEZZA DIVINA Tra Van Gogh, Chagall e
Fontana – Venezia 2015 – Marsilio Editori<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maurizio Fagiolo dell'Arco, Dieter
Graf e Francesco Petrucci - GIOVAN BATTISTA GAULLI, IL BACICCIO 1639/1709 -
1999 - Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Daniele Benati e Eugenio Riccòmini -
ANNIBALE CARRACCI - Milano 2006 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Giulia Aurigemma - CARLO
SARACENI Un veneziano tra Roma e l'Europa - Roma 2013 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Francesco Buranelli - PALAZZO FARNESE
- 2010 - Giunti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">AA. VV. - IL SEICENTO E IL SETTECENTO ROMANO
nella Collezione Lemme - Roma 1998 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Anna Lo Bianco e Angela Negro - IL
SETTECENTO A ROMA - 2005 - Silvana Editoriale<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Anna Lo Bianco - PIER LUIGI GHEZZI.
Settecento alla moda - Venezia 1999 - Marsilio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Sergej Androsov, Mario Guderzo e
Giuseppe Pavanello - CANOVA - 2003 - Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Vittoria Marini Clarelli,
Fernardo Mazzocca e Carlo Sisi - OTTOCENTO Da Canova al Quarto Stato - 2008 -
Skira<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Francesca Dini - I MACCHIAIOLI
Sentimento del vero - Milano 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maria Elisa Tittoni, Maria Catalano,
Federica Pirani e Cinzia Virno - LUOGHI, FIGURE, NATURE MORTE Opere della
Galleria d'Arte Moderna di Roma Capitale - Roma 2011 - De Luca Editori d'Arte<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Eugenia Querci e Stefano De Caro -
ALMA TADEMA E LA NOSTALGIA DELL'ANTICO - Milano 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Francesca Antonacci e Giovanna
Caterina de Feo - ATTILIO SELVA (1888 - 1970) Sculture - Roma 2008 - Francesca
Antonacci<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Enrica Torelli Landini e Carlo Maria
Travaglini - LE FABBRICHE DELLA CONOSCENZA Roma Tre nel territorio e nella
riqualificazione dell’area Ostiense - Roma 2001 - Roma Tre<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Giacinto Di Pietrantonio e Maria
Cristina Rodeschini - IL FUTURO DEL FUTURISMO - Milano 2007 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">A cura di Maristella Casciato e Annalisa Viati
Navone - LUIGI MORETTI ARCHITETTO - Milano 2010 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Testi di Maurizio Calvesi, Donald Kuspit,
Mario Lolli Ghetti, Litta Maria Medri e Antonio Paolucci – IGOR MITORAJ: dei ed
eroi - Milano 1999 - Electa<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-9480639562704014952020-11-16T08:57:00.004-08:002020-11-16T08:57:38.151-08:00CHRONOLOGY OF POPES<p><i><span lang="EN-US">According to the 2001 edition of the Annuario
Pontificio, the directory book of the Holy See</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">The numbers in brackets indicate the approximate
duration in years of the pontificate. The names in purple indicate popes not
officially recognized by the Catholic Church<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">1. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Peter</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Bethsaida in Galilee? 33 67 (34)<span style="color: red;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Martyred in
Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">2. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Linus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Volterra 67 76 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">3. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Cletus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 76 88 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">4. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Clement I </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome 88 99 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Freeman
martyred under Domitian. The body was moved to the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of S. Clemente</span></span> in 867
by the Sts. Cyril and Methodius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">5.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Evaristus</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Bethlehem (Judea) 99 107 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">6. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Alexander I </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome 107 115 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Relics
found in the Catacomb of St. Priscilla and moved in part in the 3<sup>rd</sup>
chapel on the right in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</span></span>,
and in part in the altar of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Ivo alla Sapienza</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>7. </b><b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">St. Sixtus I </span></b>Rome 115
125 (10)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>8. </b><b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">St. Telesphorus</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">
</span>Terranova da Sibari (Calabria) 125
136 (11)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">9. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Hyginus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Athens (Greece) 136 140 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">10.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Pius I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Aquileia 140 155 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">11.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Anicetus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Emesa (Syria) 155 166 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Buried in
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Church of S. Aniceto</span></span> in Palazzo
Altemps<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">12. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Soter</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Fondi (Latium) 166 174 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">13.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Eleuterus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Nicopolis (Epirus) 174 189 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">14.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Victor I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Africa 189 199 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">15.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Zephyirinus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 199 217 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">16. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Callixtus I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 217 222 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Bookmarks"><span lang="EN-US">Catacomb of
St. Callisto<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ippolito</span></b> 217/235<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 17.85pt; text-indent: 0in;"><b>17. </b><b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">St. Urban I</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Rome 222 230 (8)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">18.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Pontian</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 230 235 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
exile in Sardinia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">19. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Anterus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Policastro (Calabria) 235 236 (43 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">20. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Fabian</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 236 250 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Albani Chapel</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> dedicated to him in the Basilica of St.
Sebastian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">21.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Cornelius</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 251 253 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Novatian</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 251/258<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">22. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Lucius I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 253 254 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">23.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Stephan I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 254 257 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">24. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Sixtus II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Athens 257 258 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">25. </span><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">St. Dionysius</span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Terranova da Sibari (Calabria) 259 268 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">26. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St. Felix I</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 269 274 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">27.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> St. Eutychian</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Luni 275 283 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">28.</span><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> St. Caius</span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Salona (Dalmatia) 283 296 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">29.</span><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> S. Marcellino</span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 296 304 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First pope about
whom there is a document (in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Catacomb
of St. Callixtus</span></span>) in which he is mentioned as "Papa", standing
for <i>Pater Patrum</i>, the same name that
was given to the heads of the Mithraic religion. He was killed during the
persecution of Diocletian in the year 304<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">30.</span><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> S. Marcello I</span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 308 309 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">31.</span></b><span lang="IT"> <b><span style="color: red;">St.
Eusebius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Sardinia 309 310 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">32.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Miltiades</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Africa
311 314 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He received
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Lateran Basilica</span></span> as a gift from
Fausta wife of Constantine. <b>In 313 Edict
of Milan which legalized Christianity</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">33.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Sylvester</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Sant’Angelo
a Scala (Avellino) 314 335 (22)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 325 in
the first <b>Ecumenical Council of Nicaea</b>,
which condemned the doctrine of Arius. He consecrated the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Mamertine Prison</span></span> as an oratory.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Paolo alla Regola</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">34.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Mark</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
January/October 336 (263 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Mark's Basilica</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> where he is buried<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">35. <span style="color: red;">St. Julius I</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 337 352 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Bookmarks"><span lang="EN-US">Basilica of
S. Valentino<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">36.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Liberius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
352 366 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Legendary
foundation of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica S. Maria Maggiore</span></span> or
Liberian Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Felix II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">355/365<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">37.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Damasus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Spain
366 384 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe he was
born in Rome. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Lorenzo in Damaso</span></span>. Elected
in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</span></span> known as <i>Titulus Lucinae</i> at the time. <b>In 380 with the edict of Thessalonica
Christianity became state religion</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ursinus</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 366/367 exiled - Deacon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">38.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Siricius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
384 399 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">With him
the word "pope" is not another word for bishop, but it only refers to
the Roman pontiff. The <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Paul</span></span>
was built around the years 384/390 and consecrated in 395. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Marcellinus and Peter</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Pudenziana</span></span>. <b>In 395 suppression of paganism in Rome</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">39.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Anastasius I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
399 401 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He founded
the <i>Titulus Crescentinae</i> later <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Sisto Vecchio</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">40.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Innocent I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Albano
401 417 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Costruction
of the church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Vitale</span></span> in 412<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>41.</b> <b><span style="color: red;">S.
Zosimus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Greek born in Mesoraca
(Calabria) 417 418 (1)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>42.</b> <b><span style="color: red;">S.
Bonifacius I</span></b> Rome 418 422 (4)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Eulalius </span></b><span lang="EN-US">418/419 exiled<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">43.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Celestine I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Campania
422 432 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Sabina</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. In 431 the <b>Council of Ephesus</b> is held<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">44.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Sixtus III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
432 440 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He built <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria Maggiore</span></span>, the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica Eudossiana</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</span></span>. He
modified the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Lateran Baptistery</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">45.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Leo I the Great</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Volterra
(Tuscia) 440 461 (21)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">According
to tradition he persuaded Attila not to invade Rome. The chains of St. Peter joined
as he was holding them in his hands in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
Eudossiana</span></span> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">46.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Hilarius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Sardinia
461 468 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">47.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Simplicius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Tivoli
468 483 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter of Charity</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Sylvester</span></span> in Tivoli. In 476 the Western Roman Empire ended<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">48.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Felix II (III)</span></b> Rome 483 492 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">49.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Gelasius I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Kabylie (Africa) 492 496 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe he was
born in Rome. He instituted the <i>Candelora</i>
feast, which replaced the pagan festival of the <i>Lupercalia</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">50.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Anastasius II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Roma
496 498 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Tried to
end the Acacian schism but it resulted in the Laurentian schism<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">51.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Symmachus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Sardinia
498 514 (16)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He chose the
Vatican as his residence, having to fight against the anti-pope Lorenzo. </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Martino ai Monti</span></span><span lang="IT">. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica S. Pancrazio</span></span>. He
established the diaconate of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Lucia in Selci</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">He restored for the last time the large funeral Basilica of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Agnes Outside the Walls</span></span>, later
abandoned and rebuilt smaller by Honorius I<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Lawrence</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 498/505 exiled<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">52.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Hormisdas</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Frosinone
514 523 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">53.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. John I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Tuscia
Populonia 523 526 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Ravenna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">54.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Felix III (IV)</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Sannio
526 530 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Cosmas and Damian</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. He is represented in the apse mosaic. In 526
Theodoric dies<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">55.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Boniface II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
530 532 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He changed
the numbering of the years in the Julian Calendar from <i>Ab Urbe Condita</i> (Since the Foundation of Rome) to <i>Anno Domini </i>(Year of the Lord)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Dioscorus </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Alexandria</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">September/October 530<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">56.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">John II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome 533
535 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First pope
to change his name (he was called Mercury). Elected in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">57.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Agapetus I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
535 536 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died at
Constantinople. <b>In 535 the Greek-Gothic
War began. It would last until 553</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">58.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Silverius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Ceccano
(Frosinone) 536 537 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deposed and
exiled in 537. He died in Ponza in 538. Belisarius who had deposed him, erected
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Trivio</span></span> to make
amends. <b>In 536 the Byzantine general
Belisarius conquers Rome<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">59.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Vigilius</span></b> Rome 537 555 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Syracuse. He built an underground basilica around the tomb of the martyr
Hippolytus on Via Nomentana. In <b>546</b>
Rome was sacked by the Ostrogoth king Totila. In <b>552</b> it was retaken by the Byzantine general Narses. In 553 the
Greek-Gothic War ended and <b>Rome became
the capital of the Byzantine Duchy of Rome for nearly 200 years until 751</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">60.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Pelagius I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome 556
561 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He began
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of the Holy Apostles</span></span>
to celebrate the end of the Greek-Gothic War. Suspected of the assassination of
his predecessor Vigilius, he solemnly swore in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of S. Pancras of Rome</span></span>
a solemn oath of innocence in front of the Byzantine viceroy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">61.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">John III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome 561
574 (13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
completed in 570 the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of the Holy
Apostles</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">62.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Benedict I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>575 579
Roma (4<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Rome during the siege of the Lombards <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">63.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Pelagius II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
579 590 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Minor <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Lawrence Outside the Walls</span></span>.
He died of the plague broke out after the flood of the Tiber in 589<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">64.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Gregory I the Great</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
590 604 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He founded
in 575 the monastery of St. Andrew on Celium Hill where the church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Gregory</span></span> would be built. He
raised the floor of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Paul</span></span>
in order to have the altar over the tomb. After the plague of 590 he changed
the name of Hadrian’s Mausoleum into <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Castel
Sant'Angelo</span></span> after the procession during which an angel appeared. <b>In less than two years 10,000 Angles,
including the king of Kent, Ædelbert, were converted</b>. He thoroughly reorganized
the Roman liturgy, ordering earlier liturgical sources and editing new texts,
and promoted the chants called Gregorian from his name. He was the first pope
who placed the papacy on the road to power, the first who used the temporal
power of the Church not forgetting, however, the spiritual aspect of his task<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">65.</span></b><span lang="IT"> <b><span style="color: red;">Sabiniano</span></b>
Blera (Tusculum) 604 606 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">66.</span></b><span lang="IT"> <b><span style="color: red;">Boniface
III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome 607 (266 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">67.</span></b><span lang="IT"> <b><span style="color: red;">St.
Boniface IV</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Valeria dei Marsi 608 615
(7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
transformed the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pantheon</span></span> into a church in 609.
Buried beneath the altar of St. Thomas in the left transept of the Basilica of
St. Peter<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">68.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Adeodatus I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome
615 618 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">69.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Boniface V</span></b> Naples 619 625 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">70.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Honorius I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Campania
625 638 (13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Agnes Outside the Walls</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> and the apse mosaic. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Luke and Martina</span></span>. He
rebuilt the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Pancras</span></span>. He
removed the plates of gilded bronze from the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of Maxentius</span></span> for use in St. Peter. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Abbey of the Three Fountains</span></span>.
He restructured the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of S. Valentino</span></span>.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Andrew and Bartholomew</span></span> at
the Lateran. He changed the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Curia</span></span>
of the Forum into the church of St. Hadrian at the Forum. He expanded the church
of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. Quattro Coronati</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">71.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Severinus</span></b> Rome 638 640 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">72.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">John IV</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Zara
(Dalmatia) 640 642 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Chapel of
St. Venanzio in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Lateran Baptistery</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">73.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Theodore</span></b> Greece 642 649 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Mosaic in
the chapel of Ss. </span><span lang="IT">Primo and Feliciano in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Stefano Rotondo</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">He is represented in the mosaic of
St. Venanzio Chapel in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Lateran
Baptistery</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">74.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Martin I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Todi 649
653 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deported in
653 by the imperial authority of Constantinople. He died in exile in 655. Last
pope considered a martyr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">75.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Eugene</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Rome 654
657 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">76.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Vitalian</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Segni
657 672 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Last visit
of a Byzantine emperor in Rome with Constans II in 663 who stayed on the
Palatine Hill. He reintroduced sacred music<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">77.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Adeodatus II </span></b>Rome 672 676 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">78.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Donus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Roma 676 678
(2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">79.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">St. Agatho</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Palermo
(Sicily) 678 681 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">80. <span style="color: red;">St. Leo II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Aidone (Sicily) 682 683 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Buried in
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel of Our Lady of the Pillar</span></span>
in St. Peter’s Basilica. The Liber Pontificalis attributes to him the
foundation of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. George in Velabro</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">81. <span style="color: red;">St. Benedict II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 684 685 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">82.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">John V</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>Antioch 685
686 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">83.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Conon </span></b>Thrace 686 687 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Theodore</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 687<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paschal</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 687/692<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">84. <span style="color: red;">St. Sergius I</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Syria 687 701 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Born in
Palermo from a Syrian family. He introduced the singing of the Lamb of God at
mass against the decisions of the Quinisext Concil held in 692 at
Constantinople<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">85. <span style="color: red;">John VI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Ephesus (Turkey) 701 705 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">86. <span style="color: red;">John VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rossano (Calabria) 705 707 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He used the
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Domus Tiberiana</span></span> as a residence.
He had a chapel decorated in St. Peter's Basilica with a mosaic cycle lost
except for three fragments: one in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria in Domnica</span></span> and the others in S. Marco in Florence and in
the Cathedral of Orte. Fourth layer of paintings in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria Antiqua</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">87. <span style="color: red;">Sisinnius</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Syria 708 (20 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">88. <span style="color: red;">Constantine</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Syria 708 715 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Last pope
to visit Constantinople<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">89. <span style="color: red;">St. Gregory II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 715 731 (16)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was given
by the Byzantine Emperor Liutprando the territory of Sutri, which formed <b>the first territory of the Papal States</b>.
Inscription in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">atrium of St. Peter's
Basilica</span></span> with a donation of 56 olive trees for oil lamps to keep
running continuously around the tomb of St. Peter<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">90. <span style="color: red;">St. Gregory III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Syria 731 741 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He covered
the roof of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pantheon</span></span> with lead and enlarged
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Crisogono</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">91. <span style="color: red;">St. Zachary</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Greece 741 752 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was a
Greek born in S. Severina in Calabria. He granted <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Mary of the Immaculate Conception in
Campomarzio</span></span> to the Basilian nuns who had brought from
Constantinople the body of St. Gregory Nazianzen. <b>About 750 drafting in the Lateran of the false document of the Donation
of Constantine. 751 with the capture of Ravenna end of the Byzantine presence
in northern and central Italy</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">92.</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <b><span style="color: red;">Stephen</span></b> Rome 752 (3 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died
three days after the election before the consecration. He does not appear on
many lists of popes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">93. <span style="color: red;">St. Stephen II
(III) </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome
752 757 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Silvestro in Capite</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. In 756 Rome is besieged by the Lombards<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">94. <span style="color: red;">St. Paul I</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 757 767 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Oratory
over which was later built S. Maria Nova known eventually as <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Francesca Romana</span></span>. He transferred
the relics of St. Petronilla, protector of the Franks, from the Catacomb of St.
Domitilla to St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Constantine II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Nepi 767/768 deposed 768<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Philip</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 768<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">95. <span style="color: red;">Stephen III (IV)</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Syracuse
(Sicily) </span><span lang="EN-US">768 772 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">96. <span style="color: red;">Hadrian I</span> </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome 772 795 (24)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He expanded
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Cosmedin</span></span>. He
restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span>. He founded
one of his great fortified farms (<i>domusculta</i>)
protected against the Saracens in Galeria. His epitaph is in the atrium of the
Basilica of St. Peter written by Charlemagne. In 774 Charlemagne defeated the
Lombard kingdom and went to Rome for the first time<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">97. <span style="color: red;">St. Leo III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 795 816 (21)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">He crowned Charlemagne Emperor on Christmas Eve
800 in St. Peter’s Basilica</span></b><span lang="EN-US">. He transferred the relics of Sts. Nereus and Achilleus from the
Catacombs of St. Domitilla to the church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts.
Nereus and Achilleus</span></span> which he had built. He is buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel of Our Lady of the Pillar</span></span>
in St. Peter’s Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">98. <span style="color: red;">St. Stephen IV (V)</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 816 817 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">99. <span style="color: red;">St. Paschal I</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Roma 817 824 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Cecilia</span></span><span lang="EN-US">, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria in Domnica</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Praxedes</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Stephen of Cacco</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">100. <span style="color: red;">Eugenio II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 824 827 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">101. <span style="color: red;">Valentine</span></span></b><span lang="IT"> Rome 827 (40 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">102. <span style="color: red;">Gregory IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 827 844 (16)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He built
GREGORIOPOLI in Ostia. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
George in Velabro</span></span> and the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of S. Mark</span></span>, where it appears in the apse mosaic<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">John</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 844<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">103. <span style="color: red;">Sergius II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 844 847 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Martino ai Monti</span></span>. Basilicas
of St. Peter and St. Paul were plundered by the Saracens in 846 AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">104. <span style="color: red;">St. Leo IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 847 855 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He restored
the church <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. </span></span></span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Quattro Coronati</span></span><span lang="IT">.
Lower Basilica frescoes in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Clement</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">He
built a church incorporating a small oratory in the Forum, which would later
become S. Maria Nova and eventually <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Francesca Romana</span></span>. Leonine City and Leonine Walls around St.
Peter. He defeated the Saracens at Ostia in 848. He helped the refugees from <i>Centumcellae </i>to found LEOPOLI
(Cencelle). He is buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of Our Lady of the Pillar</span></span> in St. Peter’s Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Anastasius </span></b><span lang="EN-US">855 deposed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">105. <span style="color: red;">Benedict III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 855 858 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">106. <span style="color: red;">S. Nicholas I the
Great</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome
858 867 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He greatly
consolided papal authority and power. He restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Cosmedin</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">107. <span style="color: red;">Hadrian II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 867 872 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Received by
the Ss. Cyril and Methodius the relics of St. Clement (4th Pope) that buried in
the homonymous basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">108. <span style="color: red;">John VIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 872 882 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He built GIOVANNOPOLI
around the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Paul</span></span>. Charles
the Bald crowned emperor in St. Peter’s in 875<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">109. <span style="color: red;">Marino I</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Gallese (Viterbo) 882 884 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">110. <span style="color: red;">St. Hadrian III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 884 885 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">111. <span style="color: red;">Stephen V (VI)</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 885 891 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">112. <span style="color: red;">Formoso</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Corsica or Ostia 891 896 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">His body
was exhumed and brought to trial by Stephen VI's famous “Synod of the Cadaver”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">113. <span style="color: red;">Boniface VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Rome 896 (15 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">114. <span style="color: red;">Stephen VI (VII)</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 896 897 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">115. <span style="color: red;">Roman</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Gallese (Viterbo) 897 (92 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">116. <span style="color: red;">Theodore II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 897 (20 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">117. <span style="color: red;">John IX</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Tivoli 898 900 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">118. <span style="color: red;">Benedict IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 900 903 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">119. <span style="color: red;">Leo V</span> </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Ardea 903 (123 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Christopher </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome 903/904 deposed <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">120. <span style="color: red;">Sergius III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 904 911 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Counts of
Tusculum. First pope to be depicted with the Papal Tiara<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">121. <span style="color: red;">Anastasio III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 911 913 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">122. <span style="color: red;">Lando</span></span></b><span lang="IT"> Sabina 913 914 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">123. <span style="color: red;">John X</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Tossignano (Ravenna) 914 928 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He had the
Italian principalities and the Byzantine Empire unified against the Muslims Saracens
getting a decisive victory on the Garigliano River in 915. He was deposed by
order of Marozia and killed in 929 in Castel Sant'Angelo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">124. <span style="color: red;">Leo VI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 928 (186 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">125. <span style="color: red;">Stephen VII (VIII)</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 929 931 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">126. <span style="color: red;">John XI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 931 935 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Counts of
Tusculum. Deposed in 935<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">127. <span style="color: red;">Leo VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 936 939 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">128. <span style="color: red;">Stephen VIII (IX)</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 939 942 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Some
unreliable sources describe him as a German<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">129. <span style="color: red;">Marinus II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 942 946 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">130. <span style="color: red;">Agapetus II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 946 955 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">131. <span style="color: red;">John XII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 955 963 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Octavian of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deposed in 963,
he died in 964. He was 16 years old when he became pope. He was the second pope
to change his name after John II 420 years before. <b>In 962 he crowned Emperor Otto I, restoring the Holy Roman Empire that lasted
until 1806</b>. He was deposed for his improper behaviour<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">132. <span style="color: red;">Leo VIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 963 964 (82 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was eposed
and died in 965<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">133. <span style="color: red;">Benedict V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome 964 (32 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was exiled
and died in Bremen in 966<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">134. <span style="color: red;">John XIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Roma 965 972 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">135. <span style="color: red;">Benedict VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Rome 973 974 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was
deposed and murdered<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Boniface VII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">974 for the first time<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">136. <span style="color: red;">Benedict VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 974 983 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Counts of
Tusculum. He consecrated the rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Monastery
of Subiaco</span></span> with the name of St. Benedict and St. Scholastica. He
founded the convent of the Basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">137. <span style="color: red;">John XIV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Pavia 983 984 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Pietro
Canepanova di Pavia<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Boniface VII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">984/985 for the second time<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">138. <span style="color: red;">John XV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 985 996 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">139. <span style="color: red;">Gregory V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Carinthia 996 999 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Bruno of the Counts of Carinthia<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First
German pope. He enriched and expanded a small church in the Forum and gave it
the name of S. Maria Nova (later to become <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Francesca Romana</span></span>). He became pope only 24 years old. He was the grandson
of Emperor Otto I. In 998 he sent an embassy to the Ukrainian court of
Volodymir Prince of Kiev; from that date it began the widespread acceptance of
Christianity in Ukraine<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">John XVI</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Greek of Calabria 997 deposed in 997,
killed in 998<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">140. <span style="color: red;">Sylvester II</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Auvergne (France) 999 1003 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Gerbert d'Aurillac<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First
French pope. Born as a poor shepherd, he became advisor to Emperor Otto III. He
crowned St. Stephen King of Hungary. He was a well learned man and a follower
of esoteric sciences which earned him a reputation as a magician and prophet.
Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span> in a
tomb which, according to legend, gave off noise and sweated just before the
death of a pope<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">141. <span style="color: red;">John XVII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1003 (174 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Siccone
Secchi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">142. <span style="color: red;">John XVIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rapagnano (Ascoli) 1004/09 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Fasano<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>143. <span style="color: red;">Sergius IV</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Rome 1009/12 (3)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Pietro Boccadiporco<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">144. <span style="color: red;">Benedict VIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1012/24 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Theophylactus of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Gregory VI</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome 1012<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">145. <span style="color: red;">John XIX </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1024/32 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Romano of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">146. <span style="color: red;">Benedict IX</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1032/44 (12) first term<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Theophylactus III of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">147. <span style="color: red;">Sylvester III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1045 (56 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
dei Crescenzi Ottaviani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">148. Benedict IX</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">for the second time 1045 (52 days) second term<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Theophylactus III of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The only Pope
ever to be elected twice. Two years later he would be elected even for a third
time. He was deposed by the Council of Sutri<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">149. <span style="color: red;">Gregory VI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1045/46 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Graziano Pierleoni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Last pope from Rome or Lazio region until 1130<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">150. <span style="color: red;">Clement II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Hornburg (Saxony) 1046/47 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Suidger von Morsleben-Hornburg <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Pesaro in 1047. Bishop of Bamberg (Bavaria)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">151. Benedict IX</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">for the third time 1047/48 (252 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Theophylactus III of the Counts of Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died
after the third expulsion<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">152. <span style="color: red;">Damasus II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Pildenau (Bavaria) 1048 (23 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Poppo<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Palestrina<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">153. <span style="color: red;">St. Leo IX</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Alsace 1049/54 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Bruno of the Counts of Egisheim-Hirschberg<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He is
buried under the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Altar of St. Peter</span></span> in the left
transept of St. Peter's Basilica. His reign was considered as the beginning of
the papal reform revolution. In 1054 the schism between the West Catholic
church and the Orthodox Church of the East began. It ended symbolically, if not
substantially, only in 1965<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">154. <span style="color: red;">Victor II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Swabia 1055/57 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gebherard II of the Counts of
Dollestein-Hirschberg<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died at
Arezzo in 1057<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">155. <span style="color: red;">Stephen IX (X) </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Lorena 1057/58 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Frédéric Gozzelone of the Dukes of Lorraine<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He died in
Florence in 1058<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Benedict X</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome 1058/59 <i>Giovanni aka Mincio, of the Counts of Tusculum</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">156. <span style="color: red;">Nicholas II</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Chevron (Savoy) 1059/61 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Gerard de Bourgogne<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Since 1059
the election of the pope would only be reserved for cardinal bishops. From 1130
it will be extended to all the cardinals<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">157. <span style="color: red;">Alexander II </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Verona 1061/73 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Anselmo of the Counts of Baggio<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">He restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Biagio della Pagnotta</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">He authorised the Norman conquest of England in 1066<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Honorius II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">1061/72 <i>Pietro Cadalus</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">158. <span style="color: red;">St. Gregory VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Sovana (Grosseto) 1073/85 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Ildebrando Aldobrandeschi of Soana<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span>. Maybe he
had the church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Gregory the Divine Mercy</span></span>
built. He was the most important of the popes in the eleventh century. <b>He thoroughly reformed the Church</b>, but he
is best known for his role in the investiture controversy, which put him at
odds with the Emperor Henry IV. Henry appointed an anti-pope: Ghiberto, placed
on the throne as Clement III to occupy Rome. Gregory VII took refuge in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Castel Sant'Angelo</span></span>, from where,
while conducting negotiations with Henry, he sent for the rescue of the Norman
Robert Guiscard. <b>On May 21, 1084
Guiscard entered Rome and rescued the pontiff, but his troops completely
devastated the city</b> bringing worse destruction than in 410 or in 1527. Most
of the ancient remains, still standing at the time, and churches were destroyed;
since then the entire population of Rome concentrated in the Campus Martius and
left the hills. Guiscard’s call did not, however, have the expected results:
Henry was crowned emperor by the anti-pope Clement III, while Gregory VII had
to flee from Rome, despised, at this point, by the Roman people, and died in
Salerno<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT" style="color: #7030a0;">Clement III</span></b><span lang="IT"> Parma 1080/1100<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Ghiberto
da Correggio</span></i><span lang="IT"> deposed in 1100 - died in Ravenna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">159. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Victor III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Benevento 1086/87 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Desiderio Epifani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He lived in
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tower of the Caetanis</span></span> for two
months with Matilda of Canossa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">160. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Urban II</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Chatillon (Champagne, France) 1088/99 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Odon of the Lords of Chatillon<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Proclaimed
the <b>First Crusade in 1095</b>. Jerusalem
was conquered in 1099. He lived in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tower
of the Caetanis</span></span> for a year. He moved to <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Monticelli</span></span> the
relics of five martyrs from Palermo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">161. <span style="color: red;">Paschal II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Blera (Tuscia) 1099 1118 (19)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Raniero Ranieri
of Blera<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Basilica of
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Clement</span></span>. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. </span></span></span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Quattro Coronati</span></span><span lang="IT">
and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</span></span>. He
restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Bartolomeo all’Isola</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Monticelli</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Stefano del Cacco</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">He built the original chapel of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria del Popolo</span></span>. He buried
Leo II, III and IV in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of Our Lady of the Pillar</span></span> in St. Peter’s Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT" style="color: #7030a0;">Teodoric</span></b><span lang="IT"> 1100/02 - <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">Albert </span></b>1102
- <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">Sylvester
IV</span></b><span style="color: #7030a0;"> </span>Roma 1105/11 <i>Maginulfo<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">162. <b><span style="color: red;">Gelasius II </span></b>Gaeta 1118/19 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Crescenzi Caetani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">He died in Cluny in 1119. </span><span lang="EN-US">He restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Cosmedin</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Gregory VIII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Limousin (</span><span lang="EN-US">France) 1118/21 <i>Maurice Bourdin</i> d. 1125<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">163. <span style="color: red;">Callixtus II </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Burgundy 1119/24 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gui of William Count of Burgundy<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Paschal Baylon</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. He restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria in Cosmedin</span></span> with his <i>camerarius</i>
Alfano. Enlarged <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Agnese in Agone</span></span>. He opened
the <b>First Lateran Counci</b>l in 1123<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Celestine II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1124 <i>Theobald Buccapecus</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">164. <span style="color: red;">Honorius II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Casal Fiumanese (Imola) 1124/30 (5) 164<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Lamberto
Scannabecchi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">165. <span style="color: red;">Innocent II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Rome 1130/43 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gregorio Papareschi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Trastevere</span></span> (where
he is buried) with materials from the Baths of Caracalla. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Tommaso in Parione</span></span>. Portico
of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Stefano Rotondo</span></span>. <b>Second Lateran Council</b> in 1139 to stop
the schism of 1130/38 after the death of Honorius II. <b>Revolution in 1143</b> against the papal power: the republic was
proclaimed and a senate was elected for the first time since the seventh
century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Anacleto II</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">1130/38 <i>Pietro Pierleoni</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Victor IV</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">1138 <i>Gregory of the Counts of Tusculum</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">166. <span style="color: red;">Celestine II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Città di Castello 1143/44 (164 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Guido di
Città di Castello<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">167. <span style="color: red;">Lucio II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Bologna 1144/45 (1) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gerardo Caccianemici Dell’Orso<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
transformed the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica S. Croce in Gerusalemme</span></span>
and added the bell tower. He recognized the <b>Roman Republic</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">168. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Eugene III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Montemagno
(Pisa</span><span lang="EN-US">) 1145/53 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Berardo
Paganelli Montemagno<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">Second
Crusade</span></b><span lang="IT"> 1147/49. </span><span lang="EN-US">He named the town of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Rocca di Papa</span></span>. In 1145 he recognized
the Republic of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>169. <span style="color: red;">Anastasius IV</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Rome 1153/54 (1)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Corrado della Suburra<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He used the
Pantheon as a papal seat<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">170. <span style="color: red;">Adrian IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Abbots Langley Hertfordshire (UK) 1154/59 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Nicholas Breakspeare<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Only
English pope ever. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">grottoes
of St. Peter's Basilica</span></span>. He crowned Frederick Barbarossa June 18,
1155 in St. Peter's Basilica. On the same days the heretical religious reformer
<b>Arnold of Brescia</b>, was executed and
burned, and his ashes thrown into the Tiber River. He purportedly granted
Ireland to Henry II, King of England<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">171. <span style="color: red;">Alexander III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Siena 1159/81 (22)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Rolando
Bandinelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">He died in Civita Castellana in 1181 He
restored </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">S. Bartolomeo all'Isola</span></span><span lang="IT"> e </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">S. Maria
Nova</span></span><span lang="IT">. </span><span lang="EN-US">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span>. He
inspired the name to Alexander VII Chigi (1655/67) being from Siena as well. <b>In 1167 Frederick Barbarossa takes hold of
Rome and suppresses the communal power</b>. In 1178 Alexander III would return
triumphantly to Rome. <b>Third Lateran
Council</b> opened in 1179<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Victor IV (V) </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Tivoli 1159/64 <i>Ottaviano of the Counts of Monticelli</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paschal III</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">1164/68 <i>Guido da Crema</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Callistus III</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Hungary 1168/78 <i>John Abbot of Strumio</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Innocent III</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Sezze 1179/80 <i>Lando Frangipane</i>. deposed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">172.</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Lucius III</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Lucca 1181/85 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Ubaldo
Allucingoli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">173. <span style="color: red;">Urban III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Cuggiono (</span><span lang="IT">Milan) 1185/87 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Uberto
Crivelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">174. <span style="color: red;">Gregory VIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Benevento 1187 (57 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Alberto
De Morra<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">175. <span style="color: red;">Clement III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Rome 1187/91 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Paolo
Scolari<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">Third Crusade 1189/92<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">176. <span style="color: red;">Celestine III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Rome 1191/98 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Giacinto Bobone Orsini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He rebuilt the
church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Eustachio</span></span> in 1196. In 1188 he
aknowledged the autonomy of the Municipality of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">177. <span style="color: red;">Innocent III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Anagni 1198/1216 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Lotario of the Counts of Segni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First pope
elected by a conclave. He met St. Francis of Assisi and accepted the Franciscan
order. He declared the <b>Fourth Crusade of
1198</b> and the <b>Fifth Crusade </b>which
took place after his death in the years 1217/21. Buried in St. John Lateran. He
represented the height of papal authority in the Middle Ages. <b>In the year 1200 St. Peter's estate formally
became the Papal States</b>. He founded in 1204 the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Hospital of S. Spirito in Sassia</span></span>,
the oldest hospital in Rome. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Torre
delle Milizie</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Torre
dei Conti</span></span>. Tower in the Vatican where later the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Niccolina Chapel</span></span> would be built.
In 1215 he summoned the <b>Fourth Lateran
Council</b> (12<sup>th</sup> ecumenical council), which issued 70 decrees for
reform. It was finally declared the superiority of the Church than any other
secular power, as the sole custodian of Grace and exclusive mediator between
God and mankind. He established the <b>Inquisition</b>
against heresy, but he also encouraged the mendicant orders<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">178. <span style="color: red;">Honorius III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1216/27 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Cencio
Savelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1191 S. Marina in Ardea. </span><span lang="EN-US">New <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of St. Lawrence Outside the Walls</span></span> built above the Pelagian
Basilica. He restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Campitelli</span></span>
and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. Giovanni e Paolo</span></span> as well
before he became pope. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Alessio</span></span> and turned into a fortress the Savelli house where he had
lived on the Aventine Hill. Church known as <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Annunziatella</span></span>.
Mosaic of the apse of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of St. Paul Outside the Wall</span></span>. <b>In 1220 he crowned Emperor Frederick II</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">179. <span style="color: red;">Gregory IX</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Anagni 1227/41 (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Ugolino of the Counts of Segni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">He enlarged <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria del Popolo</span></span>. <b><span lang="EN-US">Sixth Crusade </span></b><span lang="EN-US">of
Frederick II in 1228, the only peaceful one. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Eusebio</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">180. <span style="color: red;">Celestine IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Milan 1241 (16 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Goffredo Castiglione<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">181. <span style="color: red;">Innocent IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Genoa 1243/54 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Sinibaldo Fieschi of the Counts of Lavagna<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1252/58
Brancaleone Andalò was the leader of a popular government. </span><b><span lang="IT">Seventh Crusade</span></b><span lang="IT"> 1249/50<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">182. <span style="color: red;">Alexander IV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Jenne (Rome) 1254 1261 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Rinaldo
dei Conti di Segni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
construction of the new <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Aracoeli</span></span>,
entrusted to the Franciscans, began. He had decorated as a cardinal the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Oratory of S. Silvestro</span></span> in Ss. </span><span lang="FR">Quattro Coronati<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">183. <span style="color: red;">Urban IV</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Troyes (France) 1261/64 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Jacques Pantaléon<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">184. <span style="color: red;">Clement IV</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Saint Gilles sur Rhone (France) 1265/68 (3) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gui Foulques Le Gros<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">His father,
the Carthusian Fercoldo is painted in the trompe l'oeil door in the Cloister of
Michelangelo at the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Museo delle Terme</span></span>.
<b>He appointed Charles of Anjou in 1265 as
king of Sicily and Naples</b>. He excommunicated <b>Conrad of Swabia</b> after the uncle Manfredi had been killed in
Benevento. <b>He proclaimed the</b> <b>Eighth Crusade</b> which took place in 1270
with Charles of Anjou<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">185. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Gregory X</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Piacenza 1271/76 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Teobaldo Visconti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">Elected after 1006 days of vacancy (29 November
1268 – 1 September 1271)</span></b><span lang="EN-US">, the longest period ever. Second Council of Lyons<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">186. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Innocent V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Tarentaise (Savoie) 1276 (153 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Pierre de Tarentaise<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">187. <span style="color: red;">Adrian V</span> </span></b><span lang="FR">Genoa 1276 (38 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Ottobono Fieschi of the Counts of Lavagna<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">188. <span style="color: red;">John XXI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Lisbon 1276/77 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Pedro Julião (Peter of Spain)<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He should
have been John XX but he wanted to correct what in his time was believed to be
an error in the counting of his predecessors John XV to XIX. So there was no
pope with the name John XX ever <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">189. <span style="color: red;">Nicholas III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1277/80 (3) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Gaetano Orsini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First pope
to reside in the Vatican area. He enlarged the building there. He had <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria sopra Minerva</span></span> reconstructed.
Oratory of S. Lorenzo in Palatio or Palatine Chapel at the Lateran, later known
as <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sancta Sanctorum</span></span> (Holy of
Holies). He dismantled the Angevin power in Rome and started a theological and
artistic program of renewal (<i>Renovatio
Romae</i>) proposing to celebrate the religious and political supremacy of
Rome. Dante puts him in Hell as he considered him a nepotistic Pope <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">190. <span style="color: red;">Martin IV</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Montpincé in Brie (France) 1281/85 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Simon de Brion<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">191. <span style="color: red;">Honorius IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome 1285/87 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Iacopo Savelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He had <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Aracoeli</span></span> rebuilt maybe
by Arnolfo di Cambio. Tombs of his parents with his statue in the right
transept of S. Maria in Aracoeli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">192. <span style="color: red;">Nicholas IV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Lisciano (Ascoli Piceno) 1288/92 (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gerolamo Masci<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Transept
and apse of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria Maggiore</span></span>, where his
tomb made in 1574 by Domenico Fontana is, with statues by Leonardo Sormani. Apse mosaic of
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Margherita</span></span>. Responsible for
the imposing pictorial program of St.
Francis Basilica in Assisi. <b>First
Franciscan pope</b> and first missionary pope for having sent Franciscan friars
to China<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">193. <span style="color: red;">St. Celestine V</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Sant’Angelo
Limosano (</span><span lang="IT">Isernia) 1294 (161 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Pietro Angeleri da Morrone<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was
elected after two years of vacancy. He retired voluntarily from the papal
throne. He was described by Dante: "He who through cowardice made the
great refusal." He died in 1296<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">194. <span style="color: red;">Boniface VIII </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Anagni 1294/1303 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Benedetto Caetani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">First Jubilee Year in 1300</span></b><span lang="EN-US">. He established the University La
Sapienza in 1303. He razed to the ground the Palazzo Colonna of Palestrina in
1298. He fortified the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Torre delle Milizie</span></span>
against the Colonna family. In 1303 famous "slap of Anagni" by
Sciarra Colonna for the many excommunications made to his family. Buried in the
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican grottoes</span></span> in St. Peter's
Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">195. <span style="color: red;">Bl. </span></span></b><b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;">Benedict XI </span></b><span lang="FR">Treviso
1303/04 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Niccolò Boccasini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">196. <span style="color: red;">Clement V</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Villandraut, Bordeaux (France) 1305/14 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Bertrand de Goth<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected by
a conclave held in Perugia which lasted eleven months (apparently for the
continued interference of Philip IV the Fair). Instead of going back to Rome,
which was then torn by factional struggles, <b>he made his home in 1305 in Poitiers first and, since 1309, in Avignon</b>.
He arrested all the Templars in France and suppressed their order<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">197. <span style="color: red;">John XXII</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Cahors, Quercy (France) 1316/34 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Jacques Arnaud d'Euse<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Nicholas V</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rieti 1328/30 resigned in 1330 on
the same year he died<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">198. <span style="color: red;">Benedict XII</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Saverdun, Toulouse (France) 1334/42 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Jacques Fournier<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">199. <span style="color: red;">Clement VI </span></span></b><span lang="FR">Chateau Maumont (Limoges) 1342/52 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Pierre Roger de Rosieres<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
celebrated the second Jubilee Year in 1350, reducing the time interval from 100
to 50 years. <b>In Rome in 1347 Cola di
Rienzo seized power, he would be killed in 1354. In 1348 black plague
throughout Europe. 1349 earthquake</b> destroyed part of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Colosseum</span></span> and the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Torre dei Conti</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">200. <span style="color: red;">Innocent VI</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Mont (Beyssac) 1352/62 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="FR">Étienne d'Aubert <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 1358 the
people government of the <b>Felice Società dei Balestrieri e Pavesati </b>(Happy Company of Archers and Banner
Holders) in Rome that will last 40 years, up to 1398<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">201. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Urban V</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Chateau de Grisac (Languedoc) 1362/70 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Guillaume de Grimoard<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He returned
to Rome in 1367 with only three French cardinals and remained there for three
years until 1370 when he returned to Avignon, where he died soon after<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">202. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XI</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Chateau Maumont (Limoges) 1370/78 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Pierre Roger de Beaufort<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">He returned to Rome persuaded by St. Catherine
of Siena on 17 January 1377</span></b><span lang="EN-US">. </span><span lang="IT">Tomb by Pietro Paolo Olivieri in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Francesca Romana</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">203. <span style="color: red;">Urban VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Napoli 1378/89 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Bartolomeo Prignano<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">He began in 1378 the Western Schism that lasted
until 1417</span></b><span lang="EN-US">. He
called the third Jubilee in 1390 by reducing the time interval from 50 to 33
years. He excommunicated Cardinal Giacomo Orsini and had him executed. The
cardinal’s mother dedicated the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Shrine
of St. James</span></span> in Vicovaro<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">204. <span style="color: red;">Boniface IX</span> </span></b><span lang="IT">Napoli 1389/1404
(15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Pietro
Tomacelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">Two Jubilees</span></b><span lang="IT">. </span><span lang="EN-US">The first in <b>1390</b>, had been declared by his
predecessor and droves of pilgrims came from Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia,
and England. The jubilee of <b>1400</b>
drew even larger crowds of pilgrims to Rome, especially from France. In spite
of a disastrous plague, Boniface remained in the city<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">205. <span style="color: red;">Innocent VII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Sulmona 1404/06 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Cosimo
de' Migliorati<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">206. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Venezia 1406/15 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Angelo Correr<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deposed at
the Council of Pisa in 1409. He resigned in 1415. He died in 1417. <b>In 1413 King Ladislas of Naples took hold
of Rome and plundered it</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">POPES IN AVIGNON - WESTERN SCHISM
1378</span></u></b><b><u><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Clement VII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Geneva 1378/94 <i>Roberto of the Counts of Savoy</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Benedict XIII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Ilescas (Aragon) 1394/1422 <i>Pedro de Luna</i>, re-elected in 1417<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Clement VIII</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Barcelona 1423/29 <i>Gil S. Muñoz</i>, resigned in 1429 and died
in 1446<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Benedict XIV</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">1425/30 <i>Bernard Garnier</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">POPES IN PISA</span></u></b><b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT" style="color: #7030a0;">Alelexander V</span></b><span lang="IT"> <i>Pietro Candia</i> 1409/10 Filargis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT" style="color: #7030a0;">John XXIII</span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: #7030a0;">
</span><span lang="IT">Ischia 1410/15 <i>Baldassarre
Cossa</i> deposed in 1415 died in 1419<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">207. <span style="color: red;">Martin V</span></span></b><span lang="IT"> Genazzano (Rome)
1417/31 (13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Oddone
Colonna<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He returned
triumphantly to Rome in 1420. He wanted to live in the Vatican area<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">208. <span style="color: red;">Eugene IV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Venezia 1431/47 (16)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gabriele Condulmer<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He moved
the university to the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo della Sapienza</span></span>.
Buried in the refectory of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Salvatore in Lauro</span></span> with tomb of Isaiah from Pisa. He was forced by
the Colonna faction to leave Rome and go to Florence for nine years<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #7030a0; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Felix V</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> 1439/49 <i>Amedeo Duke of Savoy</i>, elected in Basel, renounced in Lausanne<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">209. <span style="color: red;">Nicholas V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Sarzana 1447/55 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Tommaso Parentucelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He began
the new <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter’s Basilica</span></span> Bernardo
Rossellino in 1452 then interrupted. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of Nicholas V</span></span> in the Raphael rooms with frescoes by Fra' Giovanni
da Fiesole known as Fra Angelico. He had the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aqua
Virgo</span></span> aqueduct restored in 1453 by Leon Battista Alberti and
Bernardo Rossellino. <b>Jubilee Year in
1450</b>. He established that the Jubilee would have taken place thereafter
every 25 years<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">210. <span style="color: red;">Callistus III</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Jativa (Valencia) 1455/58 (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Alfonso Borgia<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Monserrato</span></span> with his
nephew Alexander VI<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">211. <span style="color: red;">Pius II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Corsignano (Siena) 1458/64 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Enea Silvio Piccolomini<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He had the
village where he was born, Corsignano, replanned by Bernardo Rossellino pupil
of Leon Battista Alberti, the first "modern" urban planning. Corsignano
changed name to Pienza after him <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>212. <span style="color: red;">Paul II</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Venice 1464/71 (7)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Pietro
Barbo<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo
Venezia</span></span><span lang="IT">. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Mark's Basilica</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="FR">213. <span style="color: red;">Sixtus IV</span></span></b><span lang="FR" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: FR;"> </span><span lang="FR">Celle Ligure (Savona) 1471/84 (13) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Francesco
Della Rovere<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sistine
Chapel</span></span><span lang="IT">. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sixtus
Bridge</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria del Popolo</span></span>.
</span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria della Pace</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. Reconstruction of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. Vito and Modesto</span></span>.
Restoration of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span>. Funerary
Monument by Antonio Benci aka Antonio Pollaiuolo in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Museum of the Basilica St. Peter</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">214. <span style="color: red;">Innocent VIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Genova 1484/92 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Battista Cybo<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First pope
to tighten relations with the Ottoman Empire. He persecuted witchcraft. He had
many children, at least eight and maybe, according to some sources, even sixteen.
In 1487 he appointed Tomas de Torquemada to be Grand Inquisitor of Spain and he
was a great supporter of the Spanish Inquisition. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Via Lata</span></span>. He lived
in his <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">"Belvedere Palace"</span></span> at
the Vatican. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tomb in the St. Peter’s Basilica</span></span>
executed by Antonio Benci aka Antonio del Pollaiolo. On the tomb it is written <i>During his reign the discovery of a New
World</i>, but the departure of Christopher Columbus from Palos de la Frontera
(Spain) took place on August 3, 1492, a few days after his death<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>215. <span style="color: red;">Alexander VI</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Jativa (Valencia) 1492/1503 (11) <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Roderic Llançol i de Borja<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected in
the Sistine Chapel. He had seven children including Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia.
Alexandrina Street opened in Borgo Pio. He had the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo della Sapienza</span></span> restored
by Andrea da Firenze. He had an <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">apartment</span></span>
in the Vatican painted by Bernardino di Betto aka Pinturicchio. He divided the
extra-European world between Spain and Portugal with his bull <i>Inter Caetera</i>. Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Monserrato</span></span> with his
uncle Callistus III<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">216. <span style="color: red;">Pius III </span></span></b><span lang="IT">Siena 1503 (26 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Francesco
Todeschini Piccolomini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Pius II
adopted nephew. Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Andrea della Valle</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">217. <span style="color: red;">Julius II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Albissola (Savona) 1503/13 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giuliano
Della Rovere<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He had the
new <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter's Basilica</span></span> began with
Donato Bramante in 1506. He had Michelangelo painting the ceiling of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sistine Chapel</span></span> in the years
1508/12 and his <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">apartment</span></span> was painted by
Raphael. He opened Via Giulia. He
restored <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">218. <span style="color: red;">Leone X</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Florence 1513/21 (9) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
de' Medici<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. </span><span lang="EN-US">He opened via Leonina later called Via
Ripetta. <b>He excommunicated Luther in
1521</b>. </span><span lang="IT">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria sopra Minerva</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">219. <span style="color: red;">Adrian VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Utrecht 1522/23 (2) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Adriaan
Floriszoon<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Last
foreign pope before John Paul II. Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria
dell’Anima</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">220. <span style="color: red;">Clement VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Florence 1523/34 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Giulio de' Medici<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Son of
Giuliano de' Medici, brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent and therefore cousin of
Leo X. He caused the <b>sack of Rome in
1527</b>. He completed the "Trident" in 1525 with the Via Clementina,
current Via del Babuino. </span><span lang="IT">Statues of Sts. Peter and Paul in
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ponte Sant'Angelo. </span></span>Buried in </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Gothic"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">S. Maria sopra Minerva</span></span><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">221. <span style="color: red;">Paul III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Canino (Viterbo) 1534/49 (15) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Alessandro
Farnese<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Brother of
Giulia Bella, the lover of Alexander VI Borgia who made him a cardinal. Michelangelo's
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Last Judgement</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Farnese</span></span> (still as a
cardinal). He planned the piazzas Farnese, S. Marco and Ss. Apostoli.
Reconstruction of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Spirito in Sassia</span></span>. In 1536 he
founded the Portuguese Inquisition. In 1538 he excommunicated the English King
Henry VIII. <b>Anglican schism</b>. In 1540
he recognized the Society of Jesus of St. Ignatius of Loyola. In 1542 he
instituted the Roman Inquisition and the Congregation of the Holy Office. <b>1545 beginning of the Council of Trent</b>,
which lasted, with interruptions, until 1563<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">222. <span style="color: red;">Julius III</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1550/55 (5) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Maria Ciocchi del Monte <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa
Giulia</span></span><span lang="IT">. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Andrea</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">223. <span style="color: red;">Marcello II</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Montefano (Macerata) 1555 (22 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Marcello Cervini degli Spannocchi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> He was the last pope who kept his baptismal
name. It forbade his family to move to Rome and had reduced the expenses of the
court but he died too soon to implement the radicals reforms he seemed to want
to promote. </span><span lang="IT">Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican
grottoes</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">224. <span style="color: red;">Paul IV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Capriglia (Avellino) 1555/59 (4) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Gian
Pietro Carafa<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He instituted
the <b>ghetto for Jews in 1555</b>. He
persecuted Cardinal Reginald Pole. He was particularly fond of the Inquisition.
He issued the Index of Forbidden Books. He prohibited the use of potatos
introduced from the New World by Sir Francis Drake because he considered it an "evil
plant". At his death the Romans beheaded his statue as an insulting taunt .
</span><span lang="IT">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria sopra Minerva</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">225. <span style="color: red;">Pius IV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Milan 1559/65 (6) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Angelo Medici<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Porta Pia</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. He began the ceiling of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span>. Leveled
Piazza S. John Lateran.He expanded the neighborhood known as Borgo renamed
Borgo Pio after him. He opened Via XX Settembre. He began the little house at
the Vatican later known as <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Casina
of Pius V</span></span>. He assigned <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Stefano del Cacco</span></span> to the Silvestrini Monks. </span><span lang="IT">He
had the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo della Sapienza</span></span> restored
by Guidetto Guidetti and Pirro Ligorio. </span><span lang="EN-US">He consecrated the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of S. Maria degli Angeli</span></span>
where he is buried (in the apse). <b>1563
end of the Council of Trent</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">226. <span style="color: red;">St. Pius V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Bosco Marengo (Alessandria) 1566/72 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Antonio Ghislieri<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Dominican. <b>Victory of Lepanto October 7, 1571</b>: he received
the winner Marco Antonio Colonna in triumph and kissed his feet! He finished the
ceiling of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. John Lateran</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ss. Domenico e Sisto</span></span> with a
convent for the Dominican Sisters. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of St. Pius V</span></span> in the Vatican Museums. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sistine Chapel</span></span> in S. Maria
Maggiore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">227. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Bologna 1572/85 (13) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Ugo Boncompagni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected
after a conclave lasted only one day. <b>He
reformed the calendar in 1582, known as Gregorian after his name</b>. He strengthened
diplomatic ties with Asian nations.He opened via Merulana between St. Mary
Major and St. John. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Church of Our Lady of
the Monti Neighborhood</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Athanasius of the Greeks</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gallery
of Maps</span></span> in the Vatican Museums. Monument executed by Camillo
Rusconi in the 3<sup>rd</sup> passage to the right of St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">228. <span style="color: red;">Sixtus V</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Grottammare (Ascoli Piceno) 1585/90 (5) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Felice Peretti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He opened
with his architect Domenico Fontana four streets radiating from S. Maria
Maggiore. Villa Peretti Montalto. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Lateran
Palace</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Felice Aqueduct</span></span>.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican Library</span></span>. He had roads paved
(121 in only six months in 1587!). </span><span lang="IT">He drained the Pontine
Marshes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">229. <span style="color: red;">Urban VII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1590 (12 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Battista Castagna<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Maria sopra Minerva</span></span>. </span><span lang="EN-US">The second shortest pontificate in history after Stephen in 752 who reigned
for three days only<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">230. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XIV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Cremona 1590/91 (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Niccolò Sfondrati<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He was Pope
for 315 days<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">231. <span style="color: red;">Innocent IX</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Bologna 1591 (62 days) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Antonio Facchinetti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican Crypt</span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>232. <span style="color: red;">Clement VIII</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Fano (Pesaro e Urbino) 1592/1605 (13) <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Ippolito Aldobrandini<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria Scala Coeli</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> at the Abbey of the Three Fountains. Transept
of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran Basilica</span></span>. </span><span lang="IT">Rooms in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Castel Sant'Angelo</span></span>. Anastasio
Fontebuoni apse fresco of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Balbina</span></span>. Palazzo Aldobrandini later <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Patrizi</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa Aldobrandini</span></span> in Frascati.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Clementine Room</span></span> at the Vatican.
Parents buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aldobrandini Chapel</span></span>
in S. Maria sopra Minerva. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pauline
Chapel</span></span> in Santa Maria Maggiore<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">233. <span style="color: red;">Leo XI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Florence 1605 (26 days) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Alessandro d’Ottaviano de' Medici<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The mother
was the granddaughter of Leo X. As titular cardinal of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Praxedes</span></span> he reconciled with
France whose king, Henry IV, was married to Maria de' Medici. Buried in St.
Peter’s Basilica in a tomb designed by Alessandro Algardi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">234. <span style="color: red;">Paul V</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Rome 1605/21 (16)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Camillo Borghese<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He had Carlo
Maderno finishing the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">façade of St. Peter’s
Basilica</span></span> in 1614 (inaugurated in 1612. </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pauline Chapel</span></span><span lang="IT"> in
S. Maria Maggiore. Uncle of Cardinal Scipione Borghese<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">235. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Bologna 1621/23 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Alessandro
Ludovisi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He canonized
in 1622 S. Filippo Neri, known as St. Philip Neri in English. He instituted in
1622 the Congregation of Propaganda Fide. His bust by Alessandro Algardi is in
the sacristy of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chiesa Nuova</span></span>.
His funerary monument designed by Pierre Legros is in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Ignatius</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">236. <span style="color: red;">Urban VIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Florence 1623/44 (21) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Maffeo Barberini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He consecrated
the new <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter's Basilica</span></span> on 18
November 1626. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gianicolensi Walls</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pantheon</span></span>: he took the bronze
coating of the porch beams to make 80 guns for Castel S. Angelo and the columns
of St. Peter's canopy. He had the corner column to the left replaced and
commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to build in 1626/27 two bell towers (the
"donkey’s ears"). </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S.
Salvatore in Campo</span></span><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">237. <span style="color: red;">Innocent X</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Rome 1644/55 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Battista Pamphilj<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa
Pamphilj</span></span><span lang="IT">. </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Montecitorio</span></span><span lang="EN-US">. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo
Pamphilj</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Agnes in Agone</span></span>
and Piazza Navona with the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fountain
of the Four Rivers</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">238. <span style="color: red;">Alexander VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Siena 1655/67 (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Fabio Chigi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Colonnade
of St. Peter. Chair of St. Peter. Buried in St. Peter with Bernini's tomb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">239. <span style="color: red;">Clement IX</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Pistoia 1667/69 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giulio
Rospigliosi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pine
forest of Fregene</span></span><span lang="IT">. </span><span lang="EN-US">10 angels on <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sant'Angelo
Bridge</span></span>. He had Carlo Rainaldi begin the rear façade of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria Maggiore</span></span>. Monument in
S. Maria Maggiore by Carlo Rainaldi: "Pope's statue" by Domenico
Guidi, on the right "Faith" by Cosimo Fancelli, on the left
"Charity" by Ercole Ferrata<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">240. <span style="color: red;">Clement X</span></span></b><span lang="IT"> Rome 1670/76 (6) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Battista Emilio Altieri<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Altieri Chapel</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> in Santa Maria sopra Minerva with busts of his
father and brother by Cosimo Fancelli. </span><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Altieri</span></span>. Village now in ruins of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Monterano</span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>241. <span style="color: red;">Bl. Innocent XI</span></b><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span>Como 1676/89 (13)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i>Benedetto Odescalchi<o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He desired
and financially supported the liberation of Vienna from the Turks in 1683 by
the Polish King John Sobieski. Coat of arms in front of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Odescalchi Chapel</span></span> in the
Basilica of Sts. </span><span lang="IT">Apostles. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fountain
in Piazza della Madonna dei Monti</span></span>. Naves and the façade of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Francesco a Ripa</span></span> by Mattia
De Rossi. </span><span lang="EN-US">His body is in
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Clementina Chapel</span></span> in St. Peter’s
Basilica. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Funerary monument</span></span> in the 3<sup>rd</sup>
area in between chapels of the left nave in the Basilica of St. Peter 1697/1701
by Carlo Maratta executed by Pierre-Etienne Monnot<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">242. <span style="color: red;">Alexander VIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Venice 1689/91 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Pietro Ottoboni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Alexandrina Hall</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> in the Vatican Museums. He restructured the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Torre dei Conti</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Funerary monument</span></span> in the passage
area from the apse to the Chapel of the Column in St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">243. <span style="color: red;">Innocent XII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Spinazzola (Bari) 1691/1700 (9)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Antonio Pignatelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He transformed
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Montecitorio</span></span> as a court
and the Temple of Hadrian as Stock Exchange. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tomb</span></span>
in the Basilica of St. Peter by Ferdinando Fuga. Façade of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Cathedral of St. Peter</span></span> in
Frascati. He rebuilt the port of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Anzio</span></span>
in 1698<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">244. <span style="color: red;">Clement XI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Urbino 1700/21 (20) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Francesco Albani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Transformation
into an eighteenth-century style of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of Sts. Apostles</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Clement Basilica</span></span> respectively by Francesco Fontana with his
father Carlo Fontana and Carlo Stefano Fontana another son of Carlo Fontana.
Reconstruction of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Bridget</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Church of the Holy Stigmata of St. Francis</span></span>
and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Stephen of the Abyssinians</span></span>.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Albani Chapel</span></span> in the Basilica
of St. Sebastian. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fountain of the Mermen</span></span> in
Piazza Bocca della Verita. Façade of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of S. Maria in Trastevere</span></span> modified by Carlo Fontana. He is buried
under the floor of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel of the Choir</span></span>
in St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">245. <span style="color: red;">Innocent XIII </span></span></b><span lang="IT">Poli
(Palestrina) 1721/24 (3) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Michelangelo
Conti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He restored
the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Paolina Room</span></span> in Castel
Sant'Angelo. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Spanish Steps</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Eustace</span></span> was completed with
apse and transept. He had Alessandro Specchi building the stables of the
Quirinal Palace. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican
Crypt</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">246. <span style="color: red;">Benedict XIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Gravina (Bari) 1724/30 (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Vincenzo Maria Orsini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Monument</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> by Carlo Marchionni with statues by Pietro
Bracci and Bartolomeo Pincellotti in St. Dominic Chapel of S Maria sopra
Minerva. Bust by Pietro Bracci in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Baptistery
of S. Maria Maggiore</span></span>. He rebuilt <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Nicholas of the Prefects</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Oratory
of the Holy Sacrament</span></span>. Hospital and church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Maria in Gallicano</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">247. <span style="color: red;">Clement XII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Florence 1730/40 (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Lorenzo Corsini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He opened
the museum in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palazzo Nuovo</span></span> on the Capitoline
Hill in 1734. He began the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Trevi
Fountain</span></span>. He had the stables of the Quirinal Palace finished by
Ferdinando Fuga. He had Alessandro Galilei design the façades of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John in Lateran</span></span>. He is
buried in the latter church, in the Corsini Chapel. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Celso and Giuliano</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Church of the Infant Jesus</span></span>. His
nephew Cardinal Neri Corsini opened the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Galleria
Corsini</span></span>. His busts by Pietro Bracci are in the Borghese Museum
and in the Galleria Corsini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">248. <span style="color: red;">Benedict XIV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Bologna 1740/58 (18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Prospero Lambertini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Reconstruction
of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sts. Marcellinus and Peter</span></span>. Final
restoration of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica Santa Croce in
Gerusalemme</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pinacoteca
Capitolina</span></span> (Capitoline Painting Gallery). Restoration of the
porch of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pantheon</span></span>. He stopped in 1749
the destruction of the Colosseum. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fountain</span></span>
in Civitavecchia. He is buried in the passage to the right transept of St.
Peter's Basilica with <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">monument</span></span>
by Pietro Bracci<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">249. <span style="color: red;">Clement XIII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Venezia 1758/69 (11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Carlo Rezzonico<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Trevi Fountain</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> completed with sculptures. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Small Profane Museum</span></span> in the
Vatican Museums. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of St. Michael</span></span> of St. Peter's Basilica with monument by Antonio
Canova. Building in Civitavecchia where there is the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Archaeological Museum</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">250. <span style="color: red;">Clement XIV</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">S. Arcangelo di Romagna 1769/74 (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Vincenzo Ganganelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pio-Clementino
Museum</span></span><span lang="IT"> at the Vatican. </span><b><span lang="EN-US">In 1773 he suppressed
the Jesuit order</span></b><span lang="EN-US">
under the pressure of European monarchies: maybe it's a coincidence, but no
pope chose Clement as a name anymore. Buried in the Basilica of St. Peter and
translated in 1802 in the Basilica SS. Apostoli with <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">monument</span></span> 1783/87 by Antonio
Canova (his first Roman work)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">251. <span style="color: red;">Pius VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Cesena 1775/99 (24)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovan
Angelo Braschi<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
completed the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pio-Clementino Museum</span></span> in the
Vatican. He restored the ceiling of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica
of St. John Lateran</span></span>. In 1793 he reestablished the Jesuits in
Russia. <b>He died in exile in France</b>.
Buried in an <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">early Christian sarcophagus</span></span>
with Canova plaque in the Vatican Crypt of St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">252. <span style="color: red;">Pius VII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Cesena 1800/23 (23)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Giorgio Chiaramonti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected in
the monastery of S. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, and crowned in the church
next-door. A few months later he went to Rome. <b>In 1804 Napoleon crowned himself emperor in Paris in front of him</b>.
Arrested in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Quirinal Palace</span></span> in 1809 and
brought to France. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">He returned to Rome in
1814 when he re-established the order of the Jesuits worldwide</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chiaramonti Museum</span></span> in the
Vatican. He erected the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pincian Obelisk</span></span>.
He restored the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Arch of Titus</span></span> and the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Milvian Bridge</span></span> for his return
to Rome. Buried in St. Peter’s Basilica with <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">monument</span></span>
designed by Bertel Thorvaldsen<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">253. <span style="color: red;">Leo XII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Genga (Ancona) 1823/29 (5) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Annibale
Sermattei dei Conti della Genga<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Elected
with the first conclave in the Quirinal Palace. Statue by Giuseppe De Fabris in
the first passage on the right and tomb in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel
of the Column</span></span> in St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">254. <span style="color: red;">Pius VIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Cingoli (Macerata) 1829/30 (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Francesco
Saverio Castiglioni<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tomb</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> designed by Pietro Tenerani in the passage to the Clementine Chapel in
St. Peter's Basilica. He abolished nepotism, including the abandonment of the
practice of espionage carried out by his predecessors, and issued an encyclical
condemning Bible societies and secret associations. When he died at age 69,
there were rumors that he was poisoned<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">255. <span style="color: red;">Gregory XVI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Belluno 1831/46 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Bartolomeo
Alberto Cappellari<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He opened
sections of the Vatican Museums: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gregorian
Egyptian</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Etruscan</span></span>
and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Profane</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gregorian Hall</span></span> in St. Paul's
Basilica with statue by Rinaldo Rinaldi. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ripetta
Walk</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa Gregoriana</span></span>
in Tivoli. In 1832 with the encyclical <i>Mirari
Vos</i> confirms his strong hostility to the separation of Church and State and
freedom of conscience, thought, print. In 1839 with the encyclical <i>In Supremo Apostolatus</i> he condemned
slavery as a “crime”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">256. <span style="color: red;">Pius IX</span></span></b><span lang="IT"> Senigallia 1846/78
(32) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giovanni
Maria Mastai-Ferretti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Longest
pontificate in history not including St. Peter. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pius
Christian Museum</span></span> in the Vatican Museums. Buried in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Lawrence Outside the Walls</span></span>.
<b>In 1870 with the Breach of Porta Pia
Rome became part of Italy and the capital</b>. During the fighting on September
20, 1870 49 Italians soldiers and 19 papal soldiers got killed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">257. <span style="color: red;">Leo XIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Carpineto Romano (Rome) 1878/1903 (25)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Gioacchino Pecci<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Apse of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. John Lateran</span></span> where he is
buried. Encyclical <i>Rerum Novarum</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">258. <span style="color: red;">St. Pius X</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Riese (Treviso) 1903/14 (11) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Giuseppe Sarto<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Last pope
to be declared saint before the canonizations of John XXIII and John Paul II in
2014. Statue by Pier Enrico Astori and body exposed in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Chapel of the Presentation</span></span> in
St. Peter’s Basilica. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Holy Cross Basilica</span></span>
in Via Flaminia. Church of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St.
Joseph at Trionfale</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">259. <span style="color: red;">Benedict XV</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Genoa 1914/22 (7)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Giacomo
Della Chiesa<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">1915/18 World War One<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">260. <span style="color: red;">Pius XI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Desio (Milan) 1922/39 (17) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Achille Ratti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He signed
the Concordat between the Italian State and Church of 1929 even if he was
contrary to Fascism. He fought against Nazism also writing an encyclical in
German "With deep concern" condemning the Nazi ideology. When Hitler
visited Rome, he went away to Castel Gandolfo, closed the Vatican Museums and
turned off all the lights the Vatican. Buried in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican Crypt</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pontifical Irish College</span></span>. <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Palace of the Pontifical Gregorian University</span></span>.
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Church of the Great Mother of God</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">261. <span style="color: red;">Pius XII</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Roma 1939/58 (19)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Eugenio
Pacelli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">1939/45
World War Two<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">262. <span style="color: red;">St. John XXIII</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Brusicco Sotto il Monte (Bergamo)
1958/63 (5) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Angelo
Giuseppe Roncalli<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The good
pope. <b>Second Vatican Council 1962/65</b>.
</span><span lang="IT">Canonized in 2014<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">263. <span style="color: red;">Paul VI</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;"> </span><span lang="IT">Concesio (Brescia) 1963/78 (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Giovan Battista Montini<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
completed the Second Vatican Council. First pope to travel by air and to visit
all five continents<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">264. <span style="color: red;">John Paul I</span></span></b><span lang="IT" style="color: red;">
</span><span lang="IT">Forno di Canale d'Agordo (Belluno) 1978 (33 days)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Albino Luciani<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">An autopsy
on his body was not authorized and the causes of his sudden death still remain
mysterious<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">265. <span style="color: red;">St. John Paul II</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Wadowice Krakow (Poland) 1978/2005 (26)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Karol Wojtyla<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Second
longest pontificate in history after Pius IX, or third considering St. Peter's
pontificate of which nobody knows the exact length. He was shot in St. Peter's
Square on May 13 1981. <b>First non-Italian
pope in 455 years</b> and first Polish pope, Slavic in general. He made more
than 100 trips around the world. First pope to enter a synagogue from the time
of St. Peter and the first ever to pray in a Lutheran church. He beatified 1338
and canonized 482 people, while his predecessors over the previous four
centuries had declared some 300 saints only. <b>In 1989 the Berlin Wall fell</b>. He was canonized in 2014<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">266. <span style="color: red;">Benedict XVI</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Marktl am Inn (Germany) 2005/13 (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Joseph Ratzinger<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Seventh
German pope. First pope to retire since Gregory XII times (1406/09). Now he has
the title of <i>emeritus pope</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">267. <span style="color: red;">Francesco</span></span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Buenos Aires (Argentina) 2013/current
pope<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Jorge Mario Bergoglio<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">First
pope from the Americas. First Jesuit pope</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-83589013931121366572020-11-16T08:46:00.001-08:002020-11-16T08:47:07.816-08:00TIMELINE OF ANCIENT ROME<p><b><a name="_Toc441140116"><span lang="EN-US">1500 - 1000 </span></a><span lang="EN-US">BC</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="_Toc414995092"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apennine civilization (ancestors of the Italics) with Greek influence. Traces
of their pottery found in the Forum Boario. It was a civilization of nomadic
shepherds who spreaded through Lazio, Campania and Puglia<o:p></o:p></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1000 BC</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Iron Age begins and Villanova
civilization spreads in the Lazio area. The first inhabited hills were the
Palatine, the Esquiline and the Quirinal<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140117"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">NINTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 850</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Presence of Villanovan huts on the
Palatine Hill<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">814.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of Carthage, according
to the tradition of Timaeus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140118"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">EIGHTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">753-716. <span style="color: red;">ROMULUS</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He was an advocate of the merger between
Sabines and Romans and gave the first law to the city. According to some
historians he divided the people into three tribes: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ramnenses</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Titienses</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lucerenses</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">First king of Rome and founder of the eponymous
town. Of Latin origin, the son of the god Mars and the vestal virgin Rhea
Silvia, daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa direct descendant of Aeneas.
According to the ancient Roman scholar Varro, Romulus founded Rome drawing the
sacred boundary, the pomerium, on April 21, 753 BC<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Once a king, Romulus was the promoter of the
union of the early Romans with their Sabine neighbors of the city of Cures, as
passed down in the stories of the Rape of the Sabine and of Tarpea. The Sabine settled
on the Quirinal Hill with their king, Titus Tatius, who shared power with
Romulus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Romulus also established the right of asylum
for the outcasts of the neighboring towns, and constituted the 100 original
families, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gentes</i>, represented in
the Senate, the assembly that brought together the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">patres</i>, i.e. family heads<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">After a reign of 40 years, Romulus, as
described in the legend, was taken by a mysterious force into the sky during a
storm. After his death he was, according to his own desires, deified in the
form of Quirinus, the Sabine god worshiped on Quirinal Hill. According to some
historians the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ramnenses</i> tribe originated
from him<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">715-672. <span style="color: red;">NUMA POMPILIUS<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Period of peace and regulation of religious
norms. He was originally Sabine and reigned for 42 years, establishing the
priestly colleges (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">flamens</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pontifexes</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vestal virgins</i>) and reforming the calendar, basing it on the solar
year and ruling that it would have lasted 12 months, instead of 10 hitherto in
use. According to some historians the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tities</i>
tribe originated from him<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140119"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SEVENTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">672-640. <span style="color: red;">TULLUS HOSTILIUS</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He reigned for 32 years, built the Curia, seat
of the meetings of the Senate, and was a warrior king, clashing with Alba (as
passed down in the episode of the clash between Horatii and Curiatii),
conquering and deporting people to Rome, on the Celium Hill. According to some
historians the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Luceres</i> tribe
originated from him <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">640-616. <span style="color: red;">ANCUS MARCIUS</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Of Sabine origin, he reigned 25 years, founded
the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber River, built the Sublicius bridge and
promoted businesses. He fortified the Janiculum Hill and collided with the
Latin people at Medullia, deporting the losers in the Valle Murcia, between Palatine
and Aventine Hill. He established the college of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">fetials</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">616-578. <span style="color: red;">TARQUINIUS PRISCUS</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">After the first five native kings, kings with Etruscan
names succeeded, the Tarquinii, thus indicating that in the last 106 years of
monarchical period Rome was under the influence of the Etruscans. Tarquinius
Priscus of Greek and Etruscan origin, reigned 37 years. He strengthened the
army and fought against Sabines, Latins and the even Etruscans<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He enlarged the Senate and erected the Circus
Maximus and the Cloaca Maxima, allowing the development of the area of the
Forum. He began the construction of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline
Hill. He celebrated the first triumph and introduced the use of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">regalia </i>(scepter, purple toga, curule seat
and fasces). He died assassinated in a conspiracy<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140120"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SIXTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">578-534. <span style="color: red;">SERVIUS TULLIUS</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He was a servant who became son-in-law of
Tarquinius Priscus and succeded him. He reigned 43 years reforming the army to
include the populace. He was at war with Veii, Caere and Tarquinia and modified
the traditional division of the Roman aristocratic tribes, creating four urban
tribes (Suburana, Palatine, Esquiline and Collina) and seventeen country tribes
(extra-urban)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He erected a city wall (Servian Wall) and many
temples, aiming to make Rome the main spiritual center of the region. He was
assassinated in a coup by his successor Tarquinius Superbus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">534-509. <span style="color: red;">TARQUINIUS THE SUPERB</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He reigned 35 years, denying burial to his
predecessor and clashing with nearby cities. He became increasingly unpopular
with the Roman nobility, he was expelled from the city on the pretext of
violent behavior of his son Sextus with the patrician lady Lucretia. He tried,
supported by Etruscan allies, to return to the city, but failed and the
Republic was established on 509. Possible introduction of the alphabet from Cumae<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">540.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victory of Etruscan and
Carthaginians against Phoenicians at Alalia (Corsica)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">509.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Etruscans were driven from
Rome. End of the monarchy and beginning of the republic. First treaty between
Rome and Carthage<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140121"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FIFTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 499.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Annexation of Crustumerium and foundation,
in 495, of the Clustumina tribe <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">499-496.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Battle of Lake Regillus between
Romans and Latins<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">494.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Secession of the populace on Monte
Sacro. Institution of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tribunes of the
Plebs</i> and of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Comitia Tributa</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">493.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Foedus Cassianum</i> is signed: Rome joins the Latin League<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">477.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> BEGINNING OF THE WAR BETWEEN VEII
AND ROME. Roman defeat at Cremera<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 470.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Rome divided into 16 rustic tribes
and 4 urban tribes<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">458.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Cincinnatus appointed dictator to
conduct the war against the Equii. After the victory he retired to private life<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">451-450.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Law of the Twelve Tables<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">449-448.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Rome at war against Equii, Volsci
and Sabines<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">445.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Canuleia law repeals the
prohibition of marriage between patricians and plebeians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">443.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Establishment of censorship<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">431.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victory of the Romans against the
Equii at Carsioli<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">426.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Romans conquered Fidene (allied
with Veii) and incorporate it in the Rome area<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">421.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The plebeians gain access to the
office of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Questura</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">409-406.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Carthaginians conquered much of
Sicily<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">406.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The twenty-first tribe is
established. The Romans began the siege of Veii<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140122"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FOURTH CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 400.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Celts (Gauls) pass the Alps and
enter the Po valley. FIRST CLASH OF THE ROMANS AND CELTS AT CLUSIUM (Chiusi)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">396.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Marcus Furius Camillus dictator. VEII
IS SEIZED AND DESTROYED. Its territory becomes part of the Roman State<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">390.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> VICTORY OF THE GAULS, GUIDED BY
BRENNUS, AT THE ALLIA RIVER AND SACK OF ROME. Retreat of the Gauls after payment
of a ransom<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">367.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> With the Licinian Sestie laws plebeians
get access to consulate office<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">358.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> An Etruscan coalition (Tarquinia, Caere
and Faleri) goes to war against Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">354.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Praeneste and Tivoli are reunited
with Rome. Alliance between Romans and Samnites to face the Gauls<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">353.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Peace between Caere and Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">351.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> End of the war with the Etruscans
and 40-year truce signed between Tarquinia and Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">348.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> RENEWAL OF THE TREATY WITH CARTHAGE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">346/345.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Third Gallic invasion<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">345.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Submission of the Aurinci people<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">343.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Treaty of alliance between Rome and
Capua<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">343-341.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> FIRST SAMNITE WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">342.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Military sedition <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">340-338.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR AGAINST LATINS AND CAMPANI<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">340.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Battle of Sinuessa: Romans and
Samnites tame the Latin revolt<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">338. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">DEFEAT OF THE LATINS AND OF THE LATIN
LEAGUE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">328.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the Latin colony of Fregellae,
strengthened in 313<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">326-304.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SECOND SAMNITE WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">326.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pact of friendship between Rome and
Naples<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">321.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roman defeat near Caudium (CAUDINE
FORKS)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 315-314.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roman defeat at Lautule<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">314.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of Luceria (Lucera)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">313.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Latin colonies established in
Seussa and Saticula in the area between Capua and the territory of the Samnites<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">312-308.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Appius Claudius Ciecus is censor.
He was also a speaker, linguist and scholar of law<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">312.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Construction of the section of the Appian
Way from Rome to Formia, later extended until Capua. Construction of the Appian
aqueduct<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">311.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Alliance between Etruscans and
Samnites<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">310.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Q.F- Rullianus beats the Etruscans at
Lake Vadimone<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">306.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> A THIRD TREATY WITH CARTHAGE IS
SIGNED<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">306-304.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Rome conquer Bovianum, capital of
Pentri, and capture the leader of the Samnites: Statius Gellius<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">304.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN SAMNITES
AND ROMANS. The Samnite League lives on and Campania passes under Roman
control. The edile Gneus Flavio collects procedural rules in a text <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Ius Flavianum)<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 303-302.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Treaty between Rome and Taranto<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">303.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the Latin colonies of
Sora, Fucente and Carseoli, within the territory of the Equii<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140123"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">THIRD CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">300.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Ogulnia law: it allowed
plebeians access to the colleges of pontiffs and augurs<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">299.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Agreement between Romans and the
Lucani against the Samnites. Foundation of the Latin colony of Narnia (Narni)
in Umbria<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">298-290.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> THIRD SAMNITE WAR. Coalition of
Samnites, Sabines, Etruscans and Umbrian<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">296. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A.C. Ciecus defeats Samnites,
Sabines and Etruscans<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">295.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victory of the Romans at Sentino
(Umbria). Foundation of Latin colonies of Minturno and Sineussa<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">294.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Fall of Roselle<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 294.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Peace treaties between Rome and
some Etruscan cities (Volsinii, Perugia and Arezzo)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">293.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roman victory at Aquilonia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">291.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the colony of Venusia
(Venosa) in Puglia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">290.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> M.C. Dentatus defeats Samnites and
Sabines. PEACE WITH SAMNITES AND TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF ROME<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">289.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of Adria (Adriatic Sea)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">284.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Anti-Roman coalition signed between
Etruscans and Gauls. Roman defeat at Arezzo. Annihilation of the Senoni people<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">283-282.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Coalition of Etruscans and Boi Gauls
against Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">283.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Boi Gauls and Etruscans defeated at
Lake Vadimo by M.C. Dentatus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">282.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roma helps Turi sending a garrison.
End of the treaty with Taranto: a Roman fleet enters the city<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">280-275.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR AGAINST PYRRHUS. The latter had
been called by Taranto to help<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">281.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of T. Coruncanius: he
subjected permanently Etruria to Rome <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">280.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pyrrhus defeats the Romans at
Eraclea<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">279.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pirro defeats the Romans at
Ausculum (Puglia)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">278.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> LAST RENEWAL OF THE TREATY WITH
CARTHAGE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">275.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pyrrhus is beaten twice: by M.C.
Dentatus along the border between Puglia and Sannius and then by C. Lentulus at
Benevento. Pyrrhus returns to Epirus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 274-273.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Rebellion of Caere against Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">273.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the Latin colony of
Cosa in Etruscan territory. Foundation of the Latin colony of Paestum<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">272.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Taking of Taranto and Samnium.
Among the prisoners of this city there was Livio Andronico who translated the
Odyssey and wrote comedies and tragedies<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">270.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Taking of Reggio<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">269-268.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Defection against Rome of the Picenti
allies<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">268. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Foundation of Rimini (Adriatic Sea)
and of the Latin colony of Benevento (Beneventum) with subsequent extension of the
Appian Way up to this city. Later it was extended to Venosa (colony since 291)
and also to Taranto<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">267-266.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Salento and Mesapi peoples defeated
by the Romans. Brindisi (Brundisium) is seized. Extension of the Appian Way to
this city<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">265.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The "Mamertines" mercenaries
from Campania forced by Hiero of Syracuse to take refuge in Messina. Some of
them seek help from Carthage, others from Rome. The Carthaginians send a
garrison. Rome, initially uncertain, decides to intervene in support of the Mamertines.
Rebellion of the city of Volsinii against Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">265-264.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Volsinii war and conquest the city
by the Consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">264.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> At the Forum Boarium takes place
the first fight of gladiators in Rome: three pairs of gladiators fight to
commemorate the death of Junius Brutus Pera. Foundation of Fermo<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">264-241.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> FIRST PUNIC WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">264. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The Carthaginian garrison abandons Messina.
A. Claudius enters the city. Carthaginians and Syracusans (Hieron II) team up
to thwart a possible Roman hegemony in Sicily and decide to besiege Messina<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">263.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consuls Manius Valerius Maximus and
M.A. Crassus concentrate their forces on Messina and then take Catania, Enna
and Centuripe and force Hieron II of Syracuse to surrender. Hieron joins Rome
and moves away from the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians concentrate their
forces in Agrigento<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">262.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consuls Postumio and Manilius with
four legions occupy Agrigento after seven months of siege<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">262-254.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Agrigento in the hands of the
Romans<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">261.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roma builds 100 quinqueremes to
counter Carthage<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">260.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> C. Duilius, with a fleet of armed
"crows", beats the Carthaginians in MILAZZO. Carthage loses a third
of its ships<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">256. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Naval Battle of Cape Ecomo, one of
the greatest of all time: the two forces in total are more than 700 ships and
almost 300,000 men<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">255.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Regulus march on Carthage but he is
captured and then killed<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">254.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Roman fleet (consuls Scauro and
Junius) sent to save survivors is destroyed by a storm in CAMARINA. The
Carthaginian Cartalone takes courage and besieges, seizes and burn Agrigento.
Reconstruction of the Roman fleet: over 220 ships. Seize of Palermo<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 254-251.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Plautus is born in Sarsina (Umbria).
He was one of the greatest Roman playwrights<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">249.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consul Claudius Pulcher loses many
ships off the coast of Trapani in an effort to chase the Carthaginian ships<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 246-244.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the Latin colony of
Brindisi<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">241.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> G.L. Catulus destroys the
Carthaginian fleet at the EGADIAN ISLANDS. PEACE WITH CARTHAGE: the
Carthaginians give up Sicily which will become the first Roman province. Sedition
of Faleri against Rome. Foundation of Spoleto<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">238-237.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Romans conquer Sardinia and
Corsica<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">237.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Colonization of Vibo Valentia,
re-colonized in 192<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">232.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Construction of the Flaminia Road<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">230.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roman ambassadors visit the queen
of Illyria (Teuta) to request the suspension of the activities of pirates in
the Adriatic Sea. They are killed by the order of the queen<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">230-229.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR ROMANO-ILLYRIAN<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">229.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Roman fleet destroys the
Illyrian one. Occupation of Durres and Apollonia. Creation of a Roman
principality in the area to the south of the kingdom of Teuta<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">228.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Rome allowed to participate to the
Isthmian games of Corinth<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">227.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CREATION OF THE FIRST TWO ROMAN PROVINCES:
SICILY AND SARDINIA-CORSICA<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">225.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Gaul invading army defeated at
Telamon<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">223.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> G. Flaminio defeats the Gauls at
the Oglio River<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">222.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> M.C. Marcellus defeats the Gauls in
Casteggio (Clastidium) and conquers Milan (Mediolanum)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">221.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hasdrubal dies, Hannibal succeeds<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">219.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hannibal besieges Sagunto<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">218.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Institution of the Latin colonies
of Piacenza and Cremona. Roman ambassadors travel to Carthage to give ultimatum.
HANNIBAL PASS THE ALPS. Claudian Law is issued<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">218-201.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SECOND PUNIC WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">218.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hannibal defeats P.C. Scipio first
at the TICINO RIVER and then the remains of his army, as well as the army of
consul TS Longo, in the battle of TREBBIA RIVER. The Gauls join the
Carthaginians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">217.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hannibal passes the Apennines and
defeats the Roman army of G. Flaminio at LAKE TRASIMENO with about 19,000
deaths among the Romans: about 15,000 legionnaires as well as the about 4,000
riders that had arrived in the following days. The Romans elect as DICTATOR Q. F.
MASSIMO, nicknamed "Time-buyer" <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Cunctator)</i>
for his cautious and prudent conduct of the war <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">216.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The consuls L.E. Paulus and M.T.
Varro are defeated, by Hannibal, at CANNE in Puglia with almost 50,000 deaths
between Romans and allies. Defection of Capua, but also of Samnites, Apulians and
Bruzi<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">215.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hannibal signs an alliance with
Philip V of Macedonia. Defection of Syracuse. Rebellions in Sardinia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">215-205.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR. The Romans
block the offensive of the Macedonian king in Illyria<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">213.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Fire in the area of the Forum Boarium
and the Forum Olitorium<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">212.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Romans take over Syracuse.
Death of Archimedes. The siege of Capua begins. Metaponto, Eraclea and Turi join
the Carthaginians side. The Romans occupy Sagunto. Roman alliance with the
Aetolians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">211.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Capua surrenders. HANNIBAL AT THE
GATES OF ROME<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">210-206.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> P.C. Scipio (the future <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Africanus</i>) fights the Carthaginians in
Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">209.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio occupies Cartagena<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">208.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> M.C. Marcellus seizes Syracuse, but
later he is killed. Battle of Baecula<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">207.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> In Spain Scipio almost captures
Hasdrubal. Roman victory over Hasdrubal at the Metauro River. The Romans
defeats the Carthaginians in Silpia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">206.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio returns from Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">205.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of Scipio and Crassus.
Scipio gets Sicily, Crassus the Bruzio area. Pace of Phoenix<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">204.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio goes to Africa<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">203.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio beats the Carthaginians at
the Campi Magni, near Utica. Hannibal returns to Africa<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">202.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> HANNIBAL IS BEATEN BY SCIPIO
AFRICANUS AT ZAMA (Libya)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">201.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> PEACE WITH CARTHAGE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 201.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Roman annals begin to be
recorded with Q.F. Pittore<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140124"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SECOND CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Estates cultivated by slaves increase, small
property decreases, hungry populace increases, urbanization and number of
slaves grow. Propositions of assignments of lands (Gracchi) opposed by
aristocrats. Middle class (equestrians) working in trade and procurement
expands<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">200-190.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Subjugation of Gaul south of the
Alps<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">200-197.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">198.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Achaean League joins the Romans<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">197.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> T.Q. Flamininus defeats Philip V,
king of Macedonia, in Cynoscephalae. The provinces of Spain Citerior and Ulterior
are established<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">196.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> On the occasion of the Isthmian
games at Corinth Flamininus proclaims freedom for the Greek cities<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">195.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Hannibal escapes in the East<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">193.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Seleucus IV is associated to the
throne of his father Antiochus III<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">192-188.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SYRIAN WAR against Antiochus III<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">191.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The attempt of Antiochus III to
invade Greece is stopped at Thermopylae<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">190-189.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio the Asian directs the war in
Asia as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">legatus</i> of his brother
(Scipio Nasica)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">190.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The army of Scipio enters Asia.
Occupation of Ephesus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">189.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Romans led by L.C. Scipio the Asian
and Scipio Africanus beat Antiochus III at Magnesia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">188.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Peace of Apamea between Romans and
Antiochus III<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">187-185.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Agitations of slaves in southern
Italy<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">186.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Decree of the Senate against the
bacchanalia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">184.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Censorship of Cato. Cato accuses
Scipio Africanus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">183.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Suicide of Hannibal. Scipio
Africanus dies. Foundation of the colonies of Modena, Parma and Aquileia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">180.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Foundation of the colony of Lucca<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">171-168.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. Perseus, son
of Philip V, try to restore the Macedonian hegemony in Greece<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">168.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Lucius Emilius Paolus defeats the
Macedonians at Pydna<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">155.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> An embassy of three Greek
philosophers (Diogenes, Critolaus and Carneades) arrives in Rome. Cato argues
that their philosophical doctrines corrupt young Romans. The Senate decides on
their return to Greece<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">154-138.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> LUSITAN WAR <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">153-151.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SECOND CELTIBERIAN WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">149-146.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> THIRD PUNIC WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">148.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> MACEDONIA BECOMES ROMAN PROVINCE at
the end of the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR when Quintus Cecilius Metellus Macedonicus
defeats twice Andriscus who had proclaimed himself heir to Perseus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">147-139.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Uprising of Viriatus in Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">146.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> P.C. Scipio Emilianus, adopted son
of Scipio Africanus, destroys Carthage. Organization of the province of Africa
(Tunisia and western Libya). Scipio Emiliano patron of Terence. Sack of Corinth.
Foundation of the PROVINCE OF ACHAIA which includes Greece <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">143-133.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> NUMANTINIAN WAR <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">137.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Roman army under Mancinus is
defeated and surrenders to the Numantines<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 135-132.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Slave revolt in Sicily<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">133.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Scipio Emilianus defeats Numatia
and Rome is assured of peace in Spain. TIBERIUS GRACCHUS is tribune<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Agrarian law proposed by Gracchus: he proposes
a limit, to be increased in the case of children, of public land that a private
can own; distribution to the proletarians of the surplus plots of land for
which private individuals are not eligible. In compensation for the
expropriation the private individuals become effectively owners of the land<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The agrarian law is not implemented because of
difficulties of application and for the opposition of the senate<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rome inherits the kingdom of Pergamon. Murder of
Tiberius Gracchus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">126.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> INSTITUTION OF THE PROVINCE OF ASIA<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">125.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consul F. Flacco promotes a bill to
grant citizenship to all the Italians but it is not approved. Fregellae
uprising and its subsequent destruction<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">123-122.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> GAIUS GRACCHUS tribune<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">123.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Frumentaria Law: distribution of wheat
at low cost for the low classes. Law on judicial courts. Proposals on the
establishment of new colonies<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">121.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The senate condemns Gaius Gracchus
as a public enemy. Besieged on the Aventine Hill, he is killed by a slave. Institution
of the province of Gaul<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">121-111.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Laws enacted by the Senate that
diminish the value of the Gracchus reform<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">113.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Cimbrian people defeat consul
Papirius Carbo at Noreia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">112.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> After taking Cirta, Jugurtha orders
to kill all the Italians in the city<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">111-105.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> JUGURTHINE WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">111.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Roman defeat at Suthul<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">107.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> First consulate of Marius<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">106.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consul S. Caepio repress the revolt
of Toulouse and is beaten by the Germans at Orange<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">105.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Cimbrians defeat the Romans at ARAUSIO.
Marian reform of the army: abolition of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">velites</i>
(Light Infantry), of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">triarii</i> (heavy
infantry armed with spears) and chivalry. Foundation of a standard legion armed
with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gladium</i> (short double-edged
sword) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pilum</i> (javelin)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">104-100.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> GAIUS MARIUS consul. New slave
revolt in Sicily<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">102.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Mario beat the Teutons to AQUAE
SESTIAE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">101.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Mario returns to Italy and defeats
the Cimbrians at the RAUDI FIELDS<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h4><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><a name="_Toc441140125"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FIRST CENTURY BC</span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">100.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Marius consul for the sixth time. Julius
Caesar is born<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">95.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Approval of a law to limit arbitrary
granting of citizenship to Italians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">91.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The tribune M.L. Drusus, proposes a
reform of the Senate, a land reform and the granting of citizenship to Italians.
M.L. Drusus is killed<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">90-88.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Revolt of the Italians (SOCIAL WAR).
They form an independent confederation with Corfino (Italica) as capital <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">90-89.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Giuliae Plauzia-Papira law grant
citizenship to the Italians remained faithful to Rome and to those who have
surrendered<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">88-85.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">88.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of Sulla. Siege of Nola.
Sulla defeats the last Italian rebel<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mithridates VI, king of Pontus, tired of
interference of Nicomedes, attacks Bithynia, territory under Roman influence. Later
he massacres 80,000 Italian traders who were in Asia and urges the Greeks to
rise against Rome. The news arrive in Rome, while the consul Sulla was still
besieging Nola, a city in the hands of the Italians. The Senate assigns Sulla
the task of conducting the war in Asia. Sulla marches on Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Marius, along with other members of his
political faction, flees from Rome and takes refuge in Africa. Sulla begins
some constitutional reform that will be completed in the year 81<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">88-84.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CIVIL WAR BETWEEN MARIUS AND SULLA.
It starts because the tribune S. Rufus promotes an alliance of knights and
common people in order to take command from Sulla in the Mithridatic War and
assign it to Marius<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">87.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Sulla goes to fight in Greece
against Mithridates. Marius returns to Rome and takes hold of the city and
start the proscriptions<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">86.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of Marius and Cinna.
Death of Marius (January). Government of Cinna. Sulla beats troops of Pontus at
Chaeronea and then at Arcomeno<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">84.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Peace of Dardanus between Romans and
Mithridates. Failure to observe the conditions of the treaty unleashes the
Second Mithridatic War<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83-81.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR. It was
conducted by propraetor L.L. Murena<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Killing of Cinna. Sulla lands in
Brindisi and heads for Rome<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83-82.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Civil war breaks out in Italy,
between Sulla and the faction in favour of the common people. Silla routs the opponents
in the battle of Porta Collina. Proscriptions of Sulla<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">82-80.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Dictatorship of Sulla: restoration
of the authority of the Senate<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">81.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Sulla takes up the constitutional
reforms<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">80-72.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Revolt of Sertorius in Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">78.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Death of Sulla<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">78-77.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The anti-Sulla revolt of Lepidus is
repressed<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">77. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Julius Caesar made his debut in
politics with an oration against Dolabella, supporter of Sulla<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">74-63.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">74.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CIRENAICA (EASTERN LIBYA) and
BITHYNIA BECOME ROMAN PROVINCES<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">73.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Julius Caesar appointed <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pontifex</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">73-71.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Slave revolt led by Spartacus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">71.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> M.L. Crassus defeats the army of
Spartacus who dies in combat<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">70.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of L. Crassus and G. Pompey<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">68.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Julius Caesar superintendent in
Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">67.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Gabinia law gives Pompey broad
powers in the war against men devoted to the activities of pirates. In Cilicia
Pompey routs pirates. Introduction of the cult of Mithras in Rome: outstanding
example of spread of oriental cults<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">66-63.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pompey goes in the East. Defeat of
Mithridates. Capture of Jerusalem<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">63.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CONSPIRACY OF CATILINA under the
consulate of Cicero. SYRIA ORGANIZED AS A PROVINCE. Octavian is born, Caesar's
great-nephew an future emperor Augustus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">61.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar propraetor in southern Spain
and expedition against the Lusitans<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">60.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> FIRST TRIUMVIRATE: Caesar, Pompey
and Crassus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">59.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar appointed consul. He gets
the command of Gaul south of the Alps and Gaul Narbonnensis<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">58.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar tries to weaken the
senatorial aristocracy: departure from Rome of Cato (office in Cyprus) and
Cicero (exile in Greece). Caesar, as proconsul, leaves for Gaul. Caesar beats
the Helvetii and the Germans (Ariovistus)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">58-52.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Campaign of Caesar in Gaul<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">57.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victorious war of Caesar against the
Nervi (Belgian Gaul)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">56.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The triumvirate in conference in
Lucca. The triumvirate is renewed<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">55.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Consulate of Pompey and Crassus.
Caesar beat the Usipetes and Tencteri peoples and heads across the Rhine. First
expedition to Britain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">54.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar goes to Britain again and has
some success<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">53.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar defeats the Swabians and the
Eburones and travels to Italy. Death of Crassus at CARRE in the battle against
the Parthians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">52.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Pompey consul by himself. Fight
between Clodius and Milo. CAESAR BEATS VERCINGETORIX AT ALESIA<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">50.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> All Gaul become Roman possession,
but only under Augustus it will be organized as a province<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">49-46.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CIVIL WAR BETWEEN CAESAR AND POMPEY<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">49.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CAESAR CROSSES THE RUBICON with its
Gallic legions and arrives in Rome. Pompey, consuls and senators flee to
Brindisi. Caesar goes to Spain and Pompey travels to the East. Caesar arrives
in Brindisi and embarks for Epirus<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">48.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> CAESAR DEFEATS POMPEY AT PHARSALUS
(Thessaly). Pompey retreats to Egypt where he is killed by order of Ptolemy
XIV. Caesar goes to Egypt, learns of the death of Pompey and meets Cleopatra<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">48-47.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Alexandrian war. Caesar beat the
Egyptians and puts Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">47.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar beats Pharnaces at Zela
(Pontus)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">47-46.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> African campaign against the
Pompeians. Caesar writes the Commentaries of the Civil Bellum<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">46.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victory of Caesar in THAPSUS and
suicide of Cato at Utica. Triumph in Rome and ten-year dictatorship given to Caesar<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">46-45.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Spanish campaign against the
Pompeians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">45.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Victory of Caesar at MUNDA (Spain) against
the children of Pompey. Caesar gets the dictatorship for life and other offices.
He plans constitutional and economic reforms as well as the calendar reform and
promotes public works and cultural activities<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">44.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Caesar adopts Octavian. Killing
of Caesar (Ides of March)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">43.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR OF MODENA. Defeat of Anthony
and death of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. Octavian becomes consul for the
first time at the age of twenty. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE: ANTHONY, OCTAVIAN and
LEPIDUS. Proscriptions of Anthony: killing of Cicero<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">42.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Anthony defeat Brutus and Cassius
in the BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. Anthony gets the eastern provinces<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">41-40.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Treaty of Brindisi. Octavian gets
closer to Anthony. Marriage between Anthony and Octavia, sister of Octavian<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">41-40.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR OF PERUGIA<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">40.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Treaty between Octavian and Anthony
in Brindisi. They divide the empire<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">38.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Octavian marries Livia Drusilla<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">38-36.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> WAR AGAINST SIXTUS POMPEY<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">37.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Treaty of Taranto. The triumvirate
is renewed<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">37-35.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Failed expedition of Anthony
against the Parthians<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">36.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Agrippa defeats Sextus Pompey in
Nauloco. Anthony marries Cleopatra<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">36-34.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Campaign of Octavian in Illyria and
Dalmatia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">35.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Killing of Sextus Pompey<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">32.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Anthony divorces Ottavia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">31.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> BATTLE OF ACTIUM<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">30.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Taking of Alexandria and suicide of
Anthony and Cleopatra. EGYPT BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">28.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Octavian is named <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">princeps senatus</i> and is consul for the
sixth time. First purge of the senate<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">27 BC - 14 AD</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">AUGUSTUS</span></b> (41)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">27.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Octavian was awarded the title of
"Augustus" and the proconsular power for ten years. It is the
beginning of the empire<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Roma would have 92 emperors in 503 years, of
which about 40 reigned reigned for a substantial amount of time, not just for
few weeks. New system, given by Augustus, to the provinces. Foundation of Turin
(Taurinorum)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">26-24.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus in Spain<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">25. </span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">THE KINGDOM OF GALATIA, ALREADY SUBJECT
TO ROME, BECOMES PART OF THE EMPIRE AND IS TRANSFORMED IN PROVINCE. Spain
divided into three provinces (Taragonese, Lusitania, Betica). The doors of the
Temple of Janus are shut. The Pax Augusta (Peace of Augustus) begins.
Foundation of Augusta Praetoria<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">23.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus waivers the eleventh
consulate, but receives the proconsular power of all provinces and the right of
tribunician veto ("tribunicia potestas") for life. Augustus’ nephew
Marcellus dies 19 year-old<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">21.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Agrippa marries Julia, daughter of
Augustus. Phraates IV, king of the Parthians, returns to Tiberius the gold
eagle, the symbol of Rome, taken from Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae.
Augustus gets legislative powers. Gaius Caesar is born, son of Agrippa and
Julia<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">19.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus gets the office of "consular
imperium"<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">17.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The Secular Ludi are celebrated.
Lucius is born, son of Agrippa and Julia. Augusto adpts his grandchildren Gaius
and Lucius Caesar, to be his future successors<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">16-13.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus in Gaul<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">16-15.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> NORICUM AND RETIA BECOME ROMAN PROVINCES<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">14-9.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Campaign of occupation of Pannonia
(modern Hungary): led by Agrippa until the year 12 and then by Tiberius (12-9)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 13.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus reorders Gaul into three
provinces: Lugdunensis, Aquitaine and Belgica<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">12.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus becomes Pontifex Maximus.
Lepidus and Agrippa die. Julia, Agrippa's widow and daughter of Augustus, marries
Tiberius<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">12-9.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Drusus campaigns in German<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Death of Drusus due to a fall from
a horse. Fire destroys much of the Roman Forum<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9-6.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Tiberius, fresh from the Pannonian
area, leads the Germanic campaign <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">8.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Establishment of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">annona</i> prefecture. Second purge of the
Senate<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Tiberius receive, for five years, the
"tribunicia potestas". Tiberius retires to Rhodes<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2.</span></b></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Augustus gets the title of
"Pater Patriae", Father of the Homeland<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc414995092;"></span>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="break-after: avoid; margin-top: 0.25in; mso-outline-level: 4; page-break-after: avoid;"><a name="_Toc441140126"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" lang="EN-US" style="color: #5b9bd5; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 110%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">FIRST CENTURY
AD</span></i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" lang="EN-US" style="color: #5b9bd5; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 110%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Lucius, adopted son of Augustus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Gaius Caesar, adopted son of Augustus. Adoption of Tiberius as successor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4-6.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> War
campaign of Tiberius in Germany<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> JUDEA
BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6-9.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Revolt in
Pannonia and Dalmatia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
revolt in Illyria is eradicated after three years. Arminius slaughters the
three legions of Varus Quintilius in Germany (Forest of Teotoburg)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 10.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> PANNONIA
AND DALMATIA BECOME ROMAN PROVINCES<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">14.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Augustus.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">14-37.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">TIBERIUS</span></b> (23)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>14-16.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Campaign of
Germanicus in Germany<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">15.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Cherusci
are beaten in the plain of Idistaviso. Triumph of Germanicus in Rome for the
campaigns on the Rhine. INSTITUTION OF THE NEW PROVINCE OF MESIA incorporating
the PROVINCES OF MACEDONIA AND ACHAIA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">17.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Germanicus
travels in the East. INSTITUTION OF THE PROVINCES OF LOWER GERMANY AND UPPER GERMANY
as well as COMMAGENE and CAPPADOCIA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">19.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Germanicus dies in Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">23.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Drusus, son of Tiberius, poisoned by Sejanus, the praetorian prefect<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">25.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> At this
time the Romans have 25 legions, excluding the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">auxilia</i>, auxiliary troops<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">26.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Tiberius
retires to Capri. In Rome remains Sejanus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">28.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rebellion
of the Frisoni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">31.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Fall of
Sejanus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">37.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Tiberius in Miseno<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">37-41.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CALIGULA</span></b> (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">39.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> A
conspiracy against the emperor is severely repressed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">40.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Failure of
the expedition to Britain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">41.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> New
conspiracy against Caligula: this time the emperor is killed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">41-54.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CLAUDIUS</span></b> (13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">42.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Work
begins for the construction of the Port of Ostia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">43.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Britain (Britannia)
is conquered <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
43.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> BRITANNIA AND LYCIA-PAMPHILIA BECOME ROMAN PROVINCES<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">46.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> THRACE
(TRACIA) BECOME A ROMAN PROVINCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">47.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> War
campaign of Corbulo against Frisians and Cauci<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">48.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Claudius has
his wife Messalina killed for her immoral conduct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">49.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Claudius marrys
his niece Agrippina and adopts her son Nero. Expulsion of the Jewish people
from Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">54.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Claudius, perhaps poisoned by Agrippina, aged 64<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">54-68.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">NERO</span></b> (14)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">54-58.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> During
this period Nero, who had become emperor when he was only 16 years old, was
influenced by A. Burro and Seneca<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">55-64.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> War campaigns
of Domitius Corbulo in Armenia to fight the Parthians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">55.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Britannicus, son of Claudius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">58.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Nero
begins to rule by himself. He proposes to abolish indirect taxes. Senatorial
opposition to his proposal. Corbulo occupies the cities Tigranocerta and
Artaxata<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">59-60.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">status quo ante</i> (pre existing situation)
is re-established in Armenia and a prince trusted by the Romans (Tigranes V) is
given ruling powers<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">62.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Burro and Octavia, Nero's wife<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">18 July
64.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> FIRE OF ROME. NERO ACCUSES THE CHRISTIANS OF BURNING ROME.
Reconstruction of the city. The denarius gets devalued<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">64.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Ponto
region, ruled by Polemon II, is annexed to the empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">65.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Conspiracy
promoted by C. Piso. Death of Seneca, Petronius and Lucan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">66.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> End of the
war against the Parthians: Tiridates is in Rome and he is crowned king of
Armenia again. Nero travels to Greece. A small rebellion breaks out in Judea.
C. Gallus, governor of Syria, marches on Judea to quell the revolt, but he is
badly defeated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">68.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> A fire
destroys Capitoline Hill. Nero kills himself. The legions in Gaul acclaim
emperors Vindex, while those of Spain hail Galba. Rufo defeats Vindex. THE
SENATE CHOOSES <b><span style="color: red;">GALBA</span></b> AS EMPEROR. He rules
for a short period<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Galba implements a reform of the army: he downgrades the soldiers of the
fleet <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(classiarii)</i>, which previously
had been promoted, by Nero, as Legionaries<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">69.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> CIVIL WAR
BETWEEN <b><span style="color: red;">OTHO</span></b> AND <b><span style="color: red;">VITELLIUS</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Otho has Galba assassinated and claims his rights to the throne with
support from the eastern legions and from the African provinces, but Vitellius also
proposes his candidacy supported by the western legions. Civil war breaks out<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">At Bedriaticus, near Cremona, the legions of Vitellius are victorious.
Suicide of Otho. It is a temporary victory because the armies of the East acclaim
Vespasian to counter Vitellius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The legates of Vespasian defeat the army of Vitellius near Cremona.
Killing of Vitellius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">69-79.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">VESPASIAN</span></b> (10)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">69.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Raid of the
Roxolani, Sarmatian population, across the Danube. They are intercepted in Mesia
by the Romans, and they are exterminated while retreating<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">69-70. </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Uprising of
G. Civilis (auxiliary commander and barbarian leader) in Germania Inferiore
(Lower Germany): two legions are massacred by Batavians auxiliary led by Civilis.
The revolt is quelled. In this period Rome has 29 legions <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">70.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Vespasian
enters Rome. Tax reform of Vespasian: introduction of new taxes and increase of
old taxes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lex De Imperio Vespasiani</i>.
JERUSALEM TAKEN AND DESTROYED BY TITUS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">71.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Vespasian's son Titus is associated to the empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">78.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Agricola,
father in law of Tacitus, begins the campaign in Britain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">79-81.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">TITUS</span></b> (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">79.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The city
of Pompeii, an important wine center, is destroyed as a result of the eruption
of Mount Vesuvius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">80.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Martial
celebrates the inauguration of the Colosseum with a book of poems. A fire
breaks out in Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">81-96.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">DOMITIAN</span></b> (15)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83-85.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Campaign
against the Germans: creation of a border line on the crest of the Taunus
Mountains. This is the result of the campaign of Domitian against the Catti, which
is ridiculed instead by Tacitus. The border line simplified the defense against
Upper Germany<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">85-86.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> FIRST
CAMPAIGN AGAINST DACIA (modern Romania)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">85.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Dacians
of Decebal attack Mesia. The Romans reject them across the Danube River, but
during the chase suffer a serious defeat<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">88.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> SECOND
CAMPAIGN AGAINST DACIA. The defeat is redeemed with a counter-offensive that
culminates in the victory of Tapae. Uprising of A. Saturninus in Germany<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">92.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> War campaign
against the Sarmatians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 94.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Expulsion
of philosophers from Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">96.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Domitian
murdered following a conspiracy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">96-98.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">NERVA</span></b> (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">97.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> V. Rufus
colleague of Nerva in the ordinary consulate <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">98-117.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">TRAJAN</span></b> (19)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">100.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> By the
will of Trajan the city of Timgad in Algeria is founded <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140127"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SECOND
CENTURY AD</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">101-102.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> FIRST
DACIAN WAR: victorious expedition of Trajan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">105.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> ARABIA BECOMES
A ROMAN PROVINCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">105-106.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> SECOND
DACIAN WAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">106.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Annexation of Arabia Nabatea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">107.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> DACIA
BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
114-117.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> TRAJAN AT WAR AGAINST THE PARTHIANS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">113.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Trajan goes
to Antioch<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 114-115.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> ARMENIA,
MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA ARE CONQUERED AND BECOME ROMAN PROVINCES<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">THE ROMAN EMPIRE HAS REACHED ITS MAXIMUM TERRITORIAL EXPANSION <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Roman Empire became the largest state western Eurasia has ever known,
and remained so for about 450 years: about 4,000 km (2,500 miles) from Scotland
to the Euphrates and about 2,000 km (1,250 miles) from the Rhine River to the
Atlas Mountains in Morocco<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
115-116.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Conquest of the city of Ctesiphon, Baghdad today<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">117.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Trajan
dies in Cilicia. Loss of Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">117-138.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">HADRIAN</span></b> (21)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">117.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Hadrian
gives up areas conquered by Trajan: of conquered territories in the East only
Armenia and Osroene remain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">124-126.
</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Dacia is divided into three provinces<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">138-161.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">ANTONINUS PIUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(23)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He left the empire at the height of security and prosperity<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1;">161-169.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1;"> </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">LUCIUS VERUS</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1;">& </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">161-180.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">MARCUS AURELIUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(19)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">161-167.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Parthian
war conducted by Lucius Verus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">165.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> THE
PROVINCE OF MESOPOTAMIA IS RECONSTITUTED<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">166.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The army
of Lucius Verus repeates the feat of Trajan: it defeates the Parthians at
Ctesiphon and invades their territories, but none of this is followed by the
creation of a new border line. An epidemic plague breaks out in Italy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Quadi, Marcomanni and Iazgyans cross the Danube, defeate the troops at
the border and penetrate deep in the empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IT">167.</span></b><span lang="IT" style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Quadi and Marcomanni arrive to Aquileia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">169.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Lucius Verus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">172.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Marcomanni are sent out of the imperial territory and must accept a peace
treaty<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">174-75.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Quadi and
Sarmatians are subjugated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">177.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Quadi and
Marcomanni resume hostilities, which end with the great victory of the Romans
on the Danube River in 179. Torture of Christians during the games in Lyon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">180.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Marcus Aurelius at Vindobona (Vienna)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">180-192.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">COMMODUS</span></b> (12)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He tries to maintain the silver content of the denarius coin. Through a
price control he tries to keep prices down<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">182-185.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> During
this period the government is run by the praetorian prefect T. Perennis until
his murder in 185<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">190.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> A fire
destroys much of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">191.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Commodus
took the title of Hercules Roman, rebuilt and renamed the city of Rome as the
"Cologne commodiana"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">192.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Commodus is
assassinated in his bathroom in a conspiracy, of which his wife Marcia is also
part of<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">193.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> PERIOD OF
THE FIVE EMPERORS:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Once Commodus is killed <b><span style="color: red;">Pertinax</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>is proclaimed emperor <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">After ruling for three months he is killed by the Praetorian Guard
recognizing <b><span style="color: red;">Didius Julianus </span></b>as emperor,
but in other provinces other three emperors are acclaimed:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Septimius Severus (Pannonia), <b><span style="color: red;">Pescennius Niger</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(Syria - East) and <b><span style="color: red;">Clodius
Albinus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>in (Britannia - West)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">193-211.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(18)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">193.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Septimius
Severus, proclaimed consul by Commodus in 190 and in command of the legions in
Pannonia, is proclaimed emperor in Carnuntum (Austria, west of Bratislava) and
arrives in Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He implements a reform of the Praetorian cohorts and a policy of purges
against the senatorial assembly. Born in Leptis Magna in North Africa, he speaks
Latin with a heavy Berber accent<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">194-195.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Septimius
Severus occupies Antioch and Byzantium and crushes the claims of Pescennius
Niger<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">196.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Caracalla, son of Septimius Severus, is named Caesar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">197.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The army of
Clodius Albinus is defeated in Lyon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">197-198.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Parthian
campaign<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">198.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> With the
capture of Ctesiphon, the Parthian issue is resolved. Caracalla appointed
Augustus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140128"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">THIRD
CENTURY AD</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">205.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The praetorian
prefect Plautianus is killed by order of Caracalla who had married his daughter
Plautilla, later repudiated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">211.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Septimius Severus in Eboracum, Britannia (York)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">211-217.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CARACALLA</span></b> (6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">212.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
CONSTITUTIO ANTONINIANA (Edict of Caracalla): Roman citizenship is extended to
almost all the inhabitants of the Empire: the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dediticii </i>are excluded. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dediticii
</i>are people residing in the free state in areas previously autonomous after
a spontaneous act of dedition or after a war. There are probably also tax
reasons motivating this historic edict<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">214.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Further
devaluation of the silver denarius and creation of a new currency: the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Antonian</i>. Unsuccessful expedition
against the Parthians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">217.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Caracalla in April as a result of a conspiracy probablyorganized by the
praetorian prefect Macrinus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">217-222.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Pope St.
Callistus, Roman<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">217-218.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">MACRINUS</span></b> (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He reigns for 14 months. It is the first to become emperor without first
being a member of the Senate<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">218-222.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">ELAGABALUS</span></b> (4)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He tries to impose in Rome the cult of the Syrian god Baal. Sun Temple on
Palatine Hill<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">222-230.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Pope
Urban I<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">222-235.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">SEVERUS ALEXANDER</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 224-226.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The state
of Parthia (Arsacides) is overthrown by the Persians (Sassanids)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">230.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Persians of Ardashir attack the imperial territory of Mesopotamia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
231-233.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Campaign against Alamanni, Germans and Persians. In the East it is back
to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">status quo ante</i>, the situation
before hand<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">235.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Severus Alexander<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">235-238.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">MAXIMINUS THRAX</span></b> (3)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Maximinus is from Thrace, a two meters tall stolid and strong giant, who,
in the confused situation of crisis, manages to seize power. He defeat the
Germans and goes to Pannonia to counter Sarmatians and Dacians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">238.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Revolt in
Africa, leading to the appointment of Gordian III. Massimino killed in Aquileia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">238.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">GORDIAN I</span></b>, <b><span style="color: red;">GORDIAN II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(Africa)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Emperors together only for 20 days<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">BALBINUS</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> and <b><span style="color: red;">PUPIENUS</span></b> (Italy)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Co-emperors for three months<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">238-244.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">GORDIAN III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He becomes emperor only 13 years old and reigns until 19. The government
of the empire is in the hands of capable regents belonging to the senatorial
aristocracy. Gordian III is a symbol of unity of the empire, gaining support of
the people<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">241.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Gordian
III marries the daughter of a knight. Persians invade the north of Mesopotamia,
arriving as far as Antioch<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
242-243.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Gordian III leads a counter-offensive against the Persians of Shapur I,
but not all the territories are recaptured<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">244.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Gordian III near Dura<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">244-249.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">PHILIP THE ARAB</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He keeps good relations with Christians and he was probably a Christian himself
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
244.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Peace with Shapur I: Rome loses Edessa and the satellite state of Osroene<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">248.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Celebration of the millennial of Rome. Victorious campaign against the
barbarians on the Danube River. Following new invasions in the Balkans the
prefect Decius is sent to stop them. Victories of Decius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">249.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Battle of
Verona.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">249-251.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">DECIUS</span></b> (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Persecutions against the Christians. Edict of Decius imposes on subjects
of all faiths to sacrifice to the emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
250-251.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Decius campaign against the Goths who had invaded the Balkan Peninsula<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">251.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Decius
dies during a battle at Abritto<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">251-253.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">TREBONIANUS GALLUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 252.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> He associates
a son of Decius to the imperial power<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">A daughter of Decius marries <b><span style="color: red;">Volusianus</span></b>,
son of Trebonianus Gallo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Aemilianus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">, governor
of Mesia, defeats the Goths and is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">252-253.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Gothic
invasion touches Asia Minor, reaching Ephesus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">253.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The three
emperors (?) meet in Terni. Soldiers acclaim Valerianus. Killing of Aemilianus,
Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">253-260.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">VALERIAN</span></b> (7) and <b><span style="color: red;">GALLIENUS
</span>About 253.</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Valerian associates Gallienus, his son, to the empire and entrusts the
West to him in the first case of division of an empire too large to be administered
efficiently from a single center<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">257-258.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Valerian persecutes
the Christians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">258.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> St.
Ciprianus dies<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
259.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> War campaign of Valerian against the Persians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">260.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Valerian
is caught by Sopore the king of the Sassanid Persians. He is used as a stool by
the Persian king to get on his horse. He is eventually killed, flayed, stuffed
and used as a trophy hanging in his palace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">253-268.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">GALLIENUS</span></b> (8)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Until 260 with his father Valerian, then alone for eight years.
Institutional reforms implemented by Gallienus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">260.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> He gives
freedom of worship to Christians who are not persecuted again for 43 years until
Diocletian’s persecution in 303 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">262.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Gallienus
defeats the Alamanni in Milan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
267.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Goths are defeated in Thrace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">268.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Gallienus in a conspiracy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">268-270.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CLAUDIUS II "The Gothic"</span></b> (2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He fights the Goths (nicknamed for this "Gothic") and the Alamanni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">270.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Claudius
II dies of plague by the Danube River<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">270.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">QUINTILLUS</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Brother of Claudius II "The Gothic", ephemerally proclaimed emperor
in Aquileia. He reigns for only a few months, no one knows exactly how many<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">270-275.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">AURELIAN</span></b> (5)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He increases the tax burden. The new <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antoninianus</i>
coin is minted. He promoted the construction of the Aurelian Walls<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">271.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Aurelian
defeats Marcomanni, Alemanni and Jutingi. He travels in the East, conquer the
city of Palmira and defeats the Persian army<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">274.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Aureliano
defeats Tetricus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">275.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Aureliano
is killed in Byzantium<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">275-276.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">TACITUS </span></b>(1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">276.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Tacitus
dies in Asia Minor fighting against the Goths<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">276-282.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">AURELIUS PROBUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(6)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Aurelian Walls are completed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">278.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> He
defeats the Goths in Asia Minor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">282.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> He
defeats the Germans in Gaul. Preparation of the campaign against the Persians.
Killing of Probus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">282-283.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CARUS</span></b> (1)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">283.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Victories
over the Persians and killing of Caro at Ctesiphon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">283-284.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CARINUS</span></b> and <b><span style="color: red;">NUMERIAN</span></b>
(2)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Sons of Carus. Carinus, the elder reigns on the West, Numerian, the
younger on the East. Rome burns in what it will later be known as the Fire of
Carinus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">284.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The army Diocletian
acclaims as emperor <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">285.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Numerian in Asia Minor. Diocletian clashes with Carinus, surviving son of
Carus. Killing of Carinus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">284-305.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">DIOCLETIAN</span></b> (21)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">286.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Diocletian associates <b><span style="color: red;">Maximian</span></b> (<b>286-305</b>)
to the empire and moves the capital from Rome to Milan. Carausius, prefect of
the fleet, rebels in Britain and asks to be appointed emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">293.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Implementation of the TETRARCHY. The two Augusti appoint two Caesars to rule
the empire: <b><span style="color: red;">Diocletian</span></b> associates <b><span style="color: red;">Galerius</span></b> in the East and <b><span style="color: red;">Maximian</span></b> associates <b><span style="color: red;">Constantius
Chlorus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>in the West<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Under the tetrarchy numerous reforms are implemented for the administration,
for the territorial divisions, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>for taxes
and for the army<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">295.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Diocletian with Constantine travels to Palestine and fought on the Danube River
against the Sarmatians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">296.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Costantius
Chlorus subsides the rebellions of Carausius and Allectus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">296-297.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rebellion
in Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">297.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Persians of Narses, aim for Antioch. Diocletian and Galerius defeat the
Persians. Edict against the Manichaeans<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">298.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Peace of
Nisibis between Romans and Persians very advantageous to the Romans: the
borders in the eastern sector were expanded and made more defensible<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140129"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FOURTH
CENTURY AD</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">301.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Edict of
Diocletian fixing limits for prices<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">303-304.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Edicts
against Christians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">305.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Abdication of Maximian and Diocletian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Galerius</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> (<b>305-311</b>)
(in the East) and <b><span style="color: red;">Costantius Chlorus</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(<b>305-306</b>) (in the West) become the new Augusti
and appoint as Caesars <b><span style="color: red;">Maximinus Daia</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>and <b><span style="color: red;">Severus</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">306.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
unexpected death of Constantius in Eboracum (York), determines the rise of his
son, Constantine, to the throne of the Empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">306-313.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Period of
dynastic struggles especially between Constantine and <b><span style="color: red;">Maxentius</span></b> (<b>306-312</b>), son of Maximian,
appointed emperor in Rome by the Praetorian guards. Together with his father
Maximian, he has defeated Severus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">306-337.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CONSTANTINE</span></b> (31) associated for 18 years with <b><span style="color: red;">LICINIUS</span></b> (<b>306-324</b>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Emperor alone for 13 years. The silver coin is discontinued and and the
gold coin known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">solid</i> is
introduced<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">308.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Suicide of
Maximian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">311.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Edict of
Tolerance of Galerius towards Christians. Death of Galerius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">312.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> MASSENZIO
DEFEATED BY CONSTANTINE AT THE MILVIAN BRIDGE. Licinius defeats Maximinus Daia
in the East<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">313. </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">EDICT OF
MILAN (or Edict of Tolerance) promulgated by Constantine and Licinius, by which
Christians get the freedom to practice their religion and are protected and
compensated for all damages suffered under Diocletian. Benefits are granted to
the church hierarchy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">314.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Council of Arles states that military service is not incompatible with those
who profess the Christian faith<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">324.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Constantine defeats Licinius and become sole emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">325.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> First ECUMENICAL
COUNCIL OF NICEA, which condemns the doctrine of Arius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">326.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Constantine
ordered the killing of his wife and his son Crispus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">330.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Constantine founds CONSTANTINOPLE. The centers of government together with
Constantinople are also TRIER, MILAN and ANTIOCH<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">334-397.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> St.
Ambrose<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">337.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Constantine. The three sons take the title of Augustus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">337-361.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">CONSTANTIUS II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(24)
with <b><span style="color: red;">CONSTANTINE II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>and <b><span style="color: red;">CONSTANS</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">340.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Constantine II<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">350.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Constantius
II persecutes the Christians. Killing of Constans in a conspiracy. Constantius
Gallus is appointed Caesar in the East<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
350.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Construction of the Mausoleum of Constantine (S. Costanza) in Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">351.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Magnentius pretender to the throne:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Victory in MURSA MAIOR (in today Osijek in Croatia) of Constantius II
against Magnentius the bloodiest battle in the whole history of Rome.
Constantius II had an army of 60,000 men, 36,000 Magnentius: 54,000 dead total,
all soldiers of Rome. 30,000 on Constantius II side 24,000 on Magnentius’ <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">354.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Constantine or Constance (daughter of Constantine) dies in Bithynia as she is returning
to Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">355.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Julian
appointed Caesar in Gaul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">357.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Julian
defeats the Alamanni of Chnodomar in the Battle of Strasbourg with 13,000 men
against 35,000 Alamanni: according to sources only 243 Romans soldiers and 4
officers die while losses of the Alamanni are more than 6,000<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">358.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Julian
grants the Franks the right to settle in Tassandria in exchange for military
service<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">361-363.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">JULIAN THE APOSTATE</span></b> (2) sole emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">362.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Julian
with an edict decrees the closure of schools run by Christian rhetoricians,
grammarians and philosophers<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">363.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Julian
dies as a result of a wound received during the campaign against the Persians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">363-364.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">JOVIAN</span></b> (1) sole emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">363.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Peace
concluded with the Persians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">364.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Jovian in Galatia after only seven months of reign<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">364-375</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. <b><span style="color: red;">VALENTINIAN I</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(11)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">367.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Valentinian associates the sixteen year old son Gratian to the imperial
government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">375.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Valentinian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">364-378.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">VALENS</span> </b>(14)<b> <span style="color: red;">August in
the East</span></b>. He is the younger brother of Valentinian I and uncle of
Gratian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">367-383.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">GRATIAN</span></b>, son of Valentinian I. He is the first
emperor to give up the title of Pontifex Maximus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">375-392.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">VALENTINIAN II</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(17),
son of Valentinian I<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">As Valentinian II is only four years old when he becomes emperor, the
regency is assumed by the mother Justina and therefore the young emperor is
under the tutelage of his elder brother Gratian already associated to the
throne in 367<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gratian and Justina move the imperial court to Milan where there is
immediately an argument with the Catholics of the city led by Bishop Ambrose, as
Justina is Aryan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">376.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Displacements
of populations in the face of pressure of the Huns from the East. The Thervingi
and Greuthungi Goths ask to enter Roman territory. First link in a chain of
events that would bring the fall of the Western Roman Empire 100 years later <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">378.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Revolt of
the Goths mass crossing the Danube River in Bulgaria pressed by the Huns.
Valens impatiently does not wait aid from Gratian, he is defeated by the Goths
at Adrianople on August 9, 378 and dies in battle with at least 10,000 men of the
maybe 15,000 in his army<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">379-395.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">THEODOSIUS I</span></b> (16) <b><span style="color: red;">emperor
of the East and, in the last two years, sole emperor</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>of the whole empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Brave general, son of an officer who didtinguished himself in Britain at
the service of Valentinian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">380.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> EDICT OF
THESSALONICA: Christianity becomes the state religion: “The others we consider
as people without intellect and we order to condemn them to the punishment of
infamy as heretics, and at their meetings we will accord the name of church;
they must be condemned by the divine vengeance first, and then from our pains,
to which we have been authorized by the Judge in Heaven.” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Their pains</i> were mass crucifixions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">382.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Theodosius convenes the second ecumenical council at Constantinople. The
emperor Gratian removes from the curia in Rome the Altar of Victory, which had
been placed there by Augustus. Peace treaty of Theodosius with the Goths after
six years of war allowing him to settle in Mesia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">383.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Gratian
dies assassinated as he prepares to fight against <b><span style="color: red;">Magnus
Maximus</span></b>, proclaimed emperor by the legions of Britain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">387.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Magnus
Maximus passes the Alps coming to threaten Milan. The emperor and his mother
seek refuge in the east at the court of Theodosius I, who marries Galla, sister
of Valentinian II<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">388.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Magnus
Maximus is defeated by Theodosius when he is on the verge of conquering Italy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Valentinian II finds himself emperor of all the West, at least nominally,
as he is actually under the protection of the <b><span style="color: red;">magister
equitum Arbogast</span></b>, after the death of his mother. The relationship
between the emperor and his tutor are always difficult<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">390.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Massacre
of Thessalonica ordered by Theodosius and subsequent public penance of the
emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">391.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> EDICT OF
THEODOSIUS, practical implementation of the Edict of Thessalonica, according to
which pagan rites and sacrifices are prohibited and pagan temples are destroyed
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">392.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Edict of
Constantinople proclaims the death penalty for those involved in pagan rites<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">May 15,
392.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Valentinian II dies in Vienne, in Gaul, in mysterious circumstances, his
body found hanging from a tree<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Theodosius is lord of the whole empire. Arbogast, who was considered by
many involved in the death of Valentinian II, has the usurper <b><span style="color: red;">Flavius Eugenius</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>appointed
augustus by the legions of Gaul, with the support of the Senate of Rome, which
sees in him the chance to oppose the growing power of the Catholic Church<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">393.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Theodosius stops the age-old Olympic Games interpreting them as a pagan
festival<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">394.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Flavius Eugenius </span>is defeated by
Theodosius in the BATTLE OF THE FRIGIDO and the empire has again a single
master<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">395.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
Theodosius in Milan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE INTO EASTERN EMPIRE AND WESTERN EMPIRE (two INDEPENDENT
empires) between ARCADIUS (seventeen-year-old) in the east and HONORIUS
(ten-year-old) in the west<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">ALARIC, HEAD OF GOTI, INVADES ILLYRIA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">395-408.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">ARCADIUS</span></b> EMPEROR OF THE EAST (13)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">395-423.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">HONORIUS</span></b> EMPEROR THE WEST (23)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140130"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FIFTH
CENTURY AD</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">402.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Stilicho
defeates Alaric at Pollenzo and in 403 at Verona<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">404.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
capital is moved to Ravenna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">405.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Radagaiso
with an army of barbarians from various areas, comes to Italy. Stilico defeats
him under the walls of Florence<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">408.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Stilico<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">408-450</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">THEODOSIUS II</span></b><span style="color: #7030a0;"> </span>EMPEROR
OF THE EAST (42) the longest reign in the history of the emperors<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">410.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> ALARIC,
HEAD OF VISIGOTHS, OCCUPIES ROMA and then travels to the south of Italy where
he dies near Cosenza<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About
410.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Visigoths appoint as successor Ataulf, brother of Alaric, who
marries Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">414.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rutilio
Namaziano appointed prefect of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">423.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">COSTANTIUS III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>EMPEROR
OF THE WEST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">425-455.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">VALENTINIAN III</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(30)
EMPEROR OF THE WEST a year less than Constantine, the third reign for longevity.
He is proclaimed emperor when he is only 6 years old. He marries Licinia
Eudoxia, daughter of Theodosius II<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">430.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Death of
St. Augustine<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">431.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> COUNCIL
OF EPHESUS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">440-461.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Pontificate of Leo the Great, from Tusculum<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">450-457.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">MARCIAN</span></b> (7) EMPEROR OF THE EAST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">451.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Council
of Chalcedon: condemnation of Monophysitism. Ezio defeats Attila at the Raudian
Fields<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">452.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Attila
enters in Italy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">452-453.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The Huns
sacks Aquileia, come to Milan and go as far as Verona<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">453.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Attila
dies<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">454.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Ezio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">455.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Vandals of Genseric, from Africa, carry out the SACK OF ROME. Murder of
Valentinian III<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">457-461.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">MAJORIAN</span></b> (4)EMPEROR OF THE WEST <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">457-474.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">LEO I</span></b> (17)EMPEROR OF THE EAST <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">461-465.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">LIBIUS SEVERUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(4)EMPEROR
OF THE WEST <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Other emperors for a short time in this troubled period were:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Petronius
Maximus</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">, <b><span style="color: red;">Avitus</span></b>, <b><span style="color: red;">Olybrius</span></b> and <b><span style="color: red;">Glycerius</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">467-472</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. <b><span style="color: red;">ANTHEMIUS</span></b> (5) EMPEROR OF THE WEST, appointed by the
Emperor of the East, Leo I<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">467.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Leo I
organizes an expedition against the Vandals<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">468-483.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Pontificate of Simplicius, from Tivoli<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">468.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Failure
of the naval expedition of the "Byzantine Armada" with about 1,100
ships and 50,000 soldiers against the Vandals: defeat at Carthage mainly due to
some ships on fire sent towards the Roman fleet<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">472.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Killing
of Anthemius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">473-475.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">JULIUS NEPOS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span>(2) EMPEROR
OF THE WEST. He is also appointed by Leo I<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">474-491.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">ZENO</span></b> EMPEROR OF THE EAST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">475-476.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: red;">ROMOLUS AUGUSTULUS</span></b><span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">(1)</span><span style="color: red;"> </span>EMPEROR
OF THE WEST. He is appointed by his father Orestes (commander of the Italian
army). Odoacer controls the federated barbarians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1;">476.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> ODOACER DEPOSES ROMOLO AUGUSTOLO. END OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE WEST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">491-518.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">ANASTASIUS</span></b> EMPEROR OF THE EAST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140131"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SIXTH
CENTURY AD</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">518-527.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">JUSTIN I</span></b><span style="color: #7030a0;"> </span>EMPEROR
OF THE EAST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">527-565.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <b><span style="color: #7030a0;">JUSTINIAN</span></b> (38) EMPEROR OF THE EAST<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">During his rule there is a golden period for the empire, in civil
organization, economic prosperity and military strength, with the reconquest of
some territories of the West, thanks to the campaigns of Belisarius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">He promoted the construction of remarkable buildings such as the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">His greatest legacy is the collection of written laws later known as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS</i>, a homogeneous
compilation of Roman law that is still today the BASIS OF CIVIL LAW, the legal system
most common in the world<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">533.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Cassiodorus holds the post of praetorian prefect<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">535-553.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> GREEK-GOTHIC
WAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">536.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rome was
taken by the Byzantine general Belisario<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">546.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> The
Ostrogoths of Totila as part of the war greek-Gothic conquered and sacked Rome.
During the siege the Goths cut the aqueducts that still work. Rome was again
taken up by Belisario<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">549.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rome was
again besieged and conquered by Totila<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">552.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Narses,
who had since replaced Belisario, finally tore Rome from the hands of the
Ostrogoths<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Rome was under the BYZANTINE GOVERNMENT for about 200 years (553/751)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">589.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Council
of Toledo, Spanish national synod during which the Visigoth Iberian kingdom abandoned
the Arian heresy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">590-604.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Pope
Gregory the Great, Roman<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">756.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Rome
besieged by the Lombards, the Franks intervene in Italy from north<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">774.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
Charlemagne defeats the Lombard kingdom and goes to Rome for the first time<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">800. </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Charlemagne
crowned emperor in St. Peter’s Basilica</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-62771400533976177452020-11-16T08:42:00.005-08:002020-11-16T08:43:41.595-08:00CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, STONES FOR BUILDINGS, MARBLES AND HARD ROCKS IN ANCIENT ROME<h2><a name="_Toc441140086"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></a></h2><h2><a name="_Toc441140086"><span lang="EN-US">CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES</span></a></h2>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140073"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
CAEMENTICIUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Mix of
mortar and <i>caementa</i>, i.e. rough
stones or fragments of broken stone. The mortar in turn consists of lime mixed
with sand or pozzolan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Lime was
obtained by burning in ventilated furnaces (which were known as <i>calcare</i>) limestone or marble, made of
calcium carbonate. Limestone or marble, due to the heat, would turn into
calcium oxide or "quicklime", which, with the addition of water, would
become "slaked lime" and diluted for use took the name of <i>grassello</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140074"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
SILICEUM (or polygonal)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Irregular
cut stone blocks stuck into each other without mortar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140075"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
QUADRATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Regular
blocks of parallelepiped shape arranged in horizontal rows (isodomic rows)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In use
since the Archaic period, end of the seventh/beginning of the sixth century BC.
Since the fourth century BC it would be consisting in rows alternately arranged
by long and narrow side<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: Roman
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">walls of the sixth century</span></span> in <i>cappellaccio</i> stone, part of the
foundations of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Capitoline Jupiter</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140076"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
INCERTUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First two decades
of the second century BC. Small tufa blocks (<i>tufelli</i>) of pyramidal shape immersed in the core of the wall with
the visible side of irregular shape<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Magna Mater</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Porticus Aemilia</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140077"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
QUASI RETICULATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">An evolution
of <i>opus incertum</i> tending to <i>opus reticulatum</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Source of Juturna</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">House of Griffins</span></span>, the second
phase of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Cybele</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140078"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
RETICULATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Perfectly
regular arrangement of small tufa rocks <i>(tufelli)</i>
with square base forming a net-like pattern. It was common from 100 BC up to the
Julio-Claudian period when the use of brick starts to prevail <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Horrea Galbana</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Theatre of Pompey</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140079"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
MIXTUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
common from the Flavian until Hadrian period (69/117). It ended during the
Antonine period<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Crosslinked
structure at first, in the Republican period, reinforced with horizontal bands
of brick or tiles. During the empire it was more like nets of square little
blocks framed in squares made of bricks<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140080"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
TESTACEUM (or Opus Latericium)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Bricks or
shingles. Since the end of the republican period onwards. In the first century
BC it was common to mark the consular date on bricks. From 123 AD with Hadrian
it became mandatory until 164, for example in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Castra Praetoria</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140081"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
SPICATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Floor in
bricks arranged in a herringbone pattern<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140082"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
VITTATUM (or Opus Listatum)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Horizontal
bands of bricks alternated with parallelepiped- shaped tufa stones arranged in
horizontal bands. It was common since the beginning of the fourth century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140083"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
SECTILE</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Inlaid
marble for floors and walls<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140084"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
TASSELLATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Mosaic
formed by cubical tiles, of different sizes, but common in shape, in black and
white<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140085"><span lang="EN-US">OPUS
VERMICULATUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Eastern
origin, consisting of tiles sometimes very tiny, in vivid multicolour, who had
the most diverse forms to suit the design<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc441140086"><span lang="EN-US">STONES
FOR BUILDING</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140087"><span lang="EN-US">CAPPELLACCIO</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Granular tufa,
brittle and gray from the soil of Rome. Archaic period (600/400 BC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples:
ancient parts of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Servian Walls</span></span>,
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Capitoline Jupiter</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">archaic cisterns</span></span> on Palatine
Hill<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140088"><span lang="EN-US">LATERIZIO</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Laterite
Bricks<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Typical Roman
bricks of the imperial period. They were made with clay, decanted and purified
in water and degreased with the addition of sand, according to a procedure
similar to that used in the ceramic, in particular for that of common use, such
as the amphoras for transport of liquids<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The clay
thus prepared was then processed using wooden molds, which gave the desired shape.
The bricks were then dried for a few days, protected from direct sunlight and, eventually,
baked in kilns, where temperatures could reach 1000 °<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
manufacture of bricks was a real industrial activity. Its production facilities
<i>(figlinae)</i>, located generally in the
vicinity of clay deposits and along the rivers that allowed easy transport of
materials, were generally owned by important people, often related to the
imperial family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
possible to know about the workshops from the use of marking on some of the
bricks, while they were still wet, a brand which could have the date and other
informations<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The shape
of the brand, the "brick mark", changed in different periods:
initially rectangular, with text on one line, it became semicircular under
Claudius (41/54), then moon-shaped with Domitian (81/96) and round in the early
third century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">With Hadrian
(117/138) it was introduced the mandatory use of mark the date of manufacture
(consular date). To the time of Theodoric (King of Italy 493/526) date the last
known brick marks, circular or rectangular<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140089"><span lang="EN-US">PEPERINO
(Lapis Albanus)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Gray tufa ash-colored
from the quarries in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Marino</span></span>,
used from the fourth/third century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aqueduct Acqua Marcia</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sepulchre of the Scipios</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temples of the Forum Holitorium</span></span>,
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Wall of the Forum of Augustus</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</span></span>,
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Magna Mater</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140090"><span lang="EN-US">SPERONE
STONE (Lapis Gabinus)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Tufa
similar to peperino but less fine-grained with more residue<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Example:
the arch of the Cloaca Maxima to let sewage flow into the Tiber River <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140091"><span lang="EN-US">TRAVERTINE
(Lapis Tiburnus)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Sedimentary
limestone from <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tivoli</span></span>. It was used since the
second century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Theatre of Marcellus</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Colosseum</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140092"><span lang="EN-US">TUFA
OF THE ANIENE RIVER</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Reddish
from quarries of Tor Cervara. Used since about 160 BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aqua Marcia</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Milvius Bridge</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140093"><span lang="EN-US">TUFA
OF GROTTA OSCURA</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Porous,
yellowish from the territory of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Veii</span></span>.
Used since the conquest of Veii in 396 BC and even before, until the second century
BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Stele of Lapis Niger</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Walls of the fourth century BC</span></span>,
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temples C and A of Largo Argentina</span></span>,
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica Aemilia</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Veiove</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aemilius Bridge</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Milvius Bridge</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140094"><span lang="EN-US">TUFA
OF FIDENE</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Yellowish
with black residue from the quarries at Castel Gubileo. Perhaps used since the
conquest of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fidenae</span></span> in 426 BC until the
second century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples:
substructure walls of Palatine Hill and Capitol HIll, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">republican walls</span></span> of the fourth
century BC, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temples of S. Omobono</span></span>, <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temples C and A of Largo Argentina</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140095"><span lang="EN-US">TUFA
OF MONTEVERDE</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Light brown
with multicolored residue. Quarries at the foot of the Janiculum Hill and in the
Magliana area. It was used from the second century BC on<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc441140096"><span lang="EN-US">MARBLES
AND HARD ROCKS</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140097"><span lang="EN-US">AFRICAN
(marmor luculleum)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Various
colors and veins, especially red and black. From Teos in Asia Minor (Turkey),
introduced by Lucullus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140098"><span lang="EN-US">BASANITE
(lapis basanites) or bekhen stone</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It exists
in two versions: a siltstone (fine-grained) and a greywacke (slightly more
coarse-grained): both are of metamorphic origin, color uniform dark (dark gray
to gray-green)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
quarries are on rock walls on both sides of Wadi Hammamat in the Eastern Desert
of Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140099"><span lang="EN-US">BIGIO
MORATO (lapis niger) or ancient Numidian black marble</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Intense
black tones and fine grain. The quarries were located in the town of Ain el
Ksir in Tunisia, not far from those of ancient yellow marble<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples: <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">"Two centaurs"</span></span> at the
Capitoline Museums or <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">"Victory of the
Simmaci"</span></span> at the Centrale Montemartini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140100"><span lang="EN-US">CIPOLLINO
(marmor carystium)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">With
parallel bands streaked ranging from white-green to dark green. From Carystos
in the southeast of Euboea in Greece<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
called <i>cipollino</i> (small onion in
Italian) for the onion smell that emanates when this type of marble is cut<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples:
columns of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140101"><span lang="EN-US">ANCIENT
YELLOW (marmor numidicum)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Intense
yellow with dark yellow and dark red veins from Chemtou in Tunisia (ancient
Numidia)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ancient
yellow is <i>Giallo Antico </i>in Italian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140102"><span lang="EN-US">GRANITE
OF OBELISKS</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Red or
pink. From Syene (now Aswan) in Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140103"><span lang="EN-US">GRAY
GRANITE OF THE FORUM</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">From Mount
Gebel Fatira <i>(Mons Claudianus)</i>, in the
Eastern Desert of Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">A variation
with finer grain comes from places of extraction sites within easy reach (Wadi
Umm Huyut). It takes its name from the many column shafts in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Forum of Trajan</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140104"><span lang="EN-US">IMEZIO
(or Hymettus Marble, Onion Marble)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The Roman name
(<i>Marmo Cipolla</i> = Onion Marble) was
given, as with the Proconnesian marble or the Cipollino marble, for the bituminous
smell emanating at the time of fracture. For this reason and also for the look
these marbles are difficult to distinguish<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
quarries are located on Mount Hymettus, about 11 km (6.8 miles) from Athens<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It has been
used in the construction of buildings of Athens. It was definitely used by the
fourth century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In Rome it
was introduced in the early years of the first century BC by the consul Lucius
Crassus and used especially in architecture. From the period of Augustus (27
BC/14 AD) the popularity of some white marbles was decreasing after the
beginning of the large-scale exploitation of the Lunensis marble (Carrara
marble)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Examples:
Arch of Trajan in Ancona, ten columns in the portico outside on the left of the
<span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Basilica of St. Paul</span></span>, column in
front of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Mary Major</span></span>, the column of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">St. Peter in Chains</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140105"><span lang="EN-US">LUNENSIS</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">From
Carrara. The quarries were opened by Julius Caesar and became imperial property
at the time of Tiberius (98/117)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140106"><span lang="EN-US">PARIAN</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">White,
coarse-grained. It was the most widely used marble in ancient statuary. From
the island of Paros in the Cyclades Islands<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140107"><span lang="EN-US">PAVONAZZETTO
(marmor phrygium or synnadicum)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Chalky
white marble with elements of purple purplish veined, dark purple, like the
peacock's tail<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is also
known as <i>Phrygian marble</i>, for coming
from Docimia in the Phrygia region, near Synnada corresponding to the current
İscehisar in Turkey<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140108"><span lang="EN-US">PENTELIC</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">White, fine
grain. From Mount Pentelicus 15 km (9.3 miles) northeast of Athens<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140109"><span lang="EN-US">RED
PORPHYRY (lapis porphirites)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hard,
red-purple dotted with small white specks. It was possible for the Romans to
quarry it after the conquest of Egypt by Augustus in 31 BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It came from
quarries owned by the emperor on <i>Mons
Porphyrites</i> or <i>Mons Igneus</i>, a
mountain range known today as Gebel Dokhan west of Hurghada, in the Eastern
Desert of Egypt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is a kind
of marble very hard and difficult to carve, already used by the Egyptian kings
and highly regarded for his fiery red color, typically associated with the
imperial dignity<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140110"><span lang="EN-US">GREEN
PORPHYRY or SERPENTINE (lapis lacedaemonius)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deep green
with light green crystals from the Peloponnese near Sparta<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140111"><span lang="EN-US">PORTASANTA
(marmor chium)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Dark gray base
with reddish spots and streaks from light red to bloody red. From the island of
Chios in the eastern Aegean Sea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The name
originates from the marble pillars of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Holy
Door</span></span> (Porta Santa in Italian) of St. Peter's Basilica<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140112"><span lang="EN-US">PROCONNESIAN</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">White
color, with shades of cerulean, uniform or with bluish-gray veins in large
crystals. The quarries were located in the Proconnesus island, today island of
Marmara in the Sea of Marmara in Turkey<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140113"><span lang="EN-US">ANCIENT
RED</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Deep red. Ancient
Red is <i>Rosso Antico</i> in Italian. From
the quarries of Tenaro, Cape Matapan in the Peloponnese<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140114"><span lang="EN-US">ANCIENT
GREEN</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Green
background with dark gray, white, black and dark green inclusions. Ancient
Green is <i>Verde Antico</i> in Italian. From
near Larissa in Thessaly (Greece)</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-69128223738808792382020-11-16T08:39:00.007-08:002020-11-16T08:39:53.467-08:00ZAGAROLO<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 303 m (994 feet). 14,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Maybe
founded by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Prenestini</i> people, maybe
by the fleeing people of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gabii</span></span> or
perhaps only around the year 1000 as a castle against the Saracens<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140067"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Palazzo
Colonna</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Colonna
Palace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Built in
the sixteenth century for the Colonna family. It eventually became property of
the Rospigliosi family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes of
the sixteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It houses
the CIVIC LIBRARY and DEMOANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF TOYS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937051"></a><a name="_Toc441140068"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc439937051;"><span lang="IT">S. Pietro</span></span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">St. Peter<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1717/23 <span style="color: red;">Nicola
Michetti </span>(about 1675/1758). </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He was replaced from 1718 to 1723 (he went to Russia to work for five
years at the service of Czar Peter the Great) with <span style="color: red;">Ludovico
Rusconi Sassi</span> (1678/1736) and <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Caccia</span>
for G.B. Rospigliosi<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Madonna
and Child with Sts. Joseph and Anthony the Great" by <span style="color: red;">Francesco Podesti </span>(1800/95)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MAIN ALTAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"The
delivery of the keys" 1726 by <span style="color: red;">Giuseppe Chiari </span>(1654/1727).
He died before finishing his work which was completed by his brother <span style="color: red;">Tommaso Chiari </span>(1665/1773)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Spectacular
decoration in the DOME which originally was white with golden sections
"Apotheosis of St. Peter" 1917 by <span style="color: red;">G.B. Conti<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Sts.
Dominic, Francis of Paola and Leonardo worship the Trinity" 1728 by <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Pesci</span> (1679/1759)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937052"></a><a name="_Toc441140069"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc439937052;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">S. Lorenzo</span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St.
Lawrence<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Tenth century,
rebuilt in 1580 and after the bombing of the Allied Forces in 1944<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">RIGHT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Right wall
"St. John the Baptist points to the disciples the coming of the
Messiah" 1684 by <span style="color: red;">Ciro Ferri </span>(1634/89)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Left wall
"Ecstasy of St. Mary Magdalene" about 1725 by <span style="color: red;">Giuseppe Chiari</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">LEFT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Left wall
"Adoration of the Magi" about 1725 by <span style="color: red;">Agostino
Masucci </span>(1691/1758)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3<sup>rd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Above the altar
triptych with doors "Redeemer blessing and Sts. Peter and Paul" 1497 by
an <span style="color: red;">assistant of Antonio Aquili aka Antoniazzo Romano </span>(about
1435-40 / 1508) for Pierfrancesco Colonna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"A
certain hardness of traits is muffled by the vibrant use of color obtained
through the combination of complementary colors, while refinements typical of
Antoniazzo Romano are visible in the minutely adorned edges of the cloaks and
the short two-tone belt of St. Paul. Considering the iconographic image, the blessing
Redeemer represents in modern forms the model of the Achiropita icon in the
Sancta Santorum at the Lateran, the cult of which was particularly widespread
in the Lazio region during the Middle Ages. This is a recurring theme in the
production of Antoniazzo and his school during the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth century" (Anna Cavallaro)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140070"><span lang="IT">Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1260 for
Cardinal Giovanni Colonna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Renovated at
the beginning of the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth
century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Altarpieces
about 1720 maybe from the destroyed church of the Gallicano conventuals:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<sup>st</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Miracle
of St. Rose of Viterbo" by <span style="color: red;">Giuseppe Chiari</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"St.
Anthony" by <span style="color: red;">Onofrio Avellino </span>(about
1674/1741) pupil of Francesco Solimena<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3<sup>rd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Ecstasy
of St. Francis” also by <span style="color: red;">Onofrio Avellino</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Immaculate
Conception with Sts. Augustine and John the Evangelist" by <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Pesci </span>(1679/1759)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<sup>st</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Sts.
Anna, Dominic and Joseph with monogram of Mary" also by <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Pesci</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-83762787351204364632020-11-16T08:39:00.001-08:002020-11-16T08:39:03.947-08:00VICOVARO<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 300 m (984 feet). 4,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It
corresponds to the ancient <i>Varia</i>
often mentioned by Horace as close to his own villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There are
remarkable remains of the WALLS of the third/second century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937045"></a><a name="_Toc441140062"><span lang="EN-US">Tempietto di S.
Giacomo</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo">Small Temple
of St. James<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">1454 <span style="color: red;">Domenico da Capodistria</span>, with the upper part completed
in 1465 by Giovanni Duknovich aka <span style="color: red;">Giovanni Dalmata </span>(about
1440/1510)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Octagonal in
Gothic-Renaissance style with rich GATE richly adorned of beautiful bas-reliefs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built to keep the mortal remains of Cardinal Giacomo Orsini Prince of Vicovaro
who was excommunicated by Urban VI (1378/89) for voting against him in the
conclave and executed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The temple
was dedicated to him by his mother Isabella Savelli, by his brothers and by the
anti-pope Clement VII from Avignon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Above the
altar "Madonna of Vicovaro" about 1738 by <span style="color: red;">Giacomo
Triga </span>(1674/1746), a pupil of Benedetto Luti<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937046"></a><a name="_Toc441140063"><span lang="IT">S. Pietro</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">St. Peter<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1755 <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Theodoli
</span>(1677/1766)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937047"></a><a name="_Toc441140064"><span lang="IT">Palazzo Cenci-Bolognetti</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="IT">Cenci-Bolognetti
Palace<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built from
1693 above the old residence of the Orsini family of the fifteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140065"><span lang="EN-US">Monument
to Caius Menio Basso</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3 km (1.8
miles) towards Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Mid
first century AD, tomb of a Roman military tribune who was born in Tivoli</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-27756522871714333712020-11-16T08:37:00.004-08:002020-11-16T08:37:27.873-08:00VELLETRI<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 332 m (1,090 feet). 50,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
located on a spur of MOUNT ARTEMISIO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is of
ancient origin, known as <i>Velcester</i> in
Volscan language, as <i>Velitrae</i> in
Latin language<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It used to
be a holiday resort of the ancient Romans with beautiful villas <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It gave rise
to the Octavia family from which Augustus (27 BC/14 AD) descended. He was born
in Rome, but he spent his childhood here<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The city underwent
massive aerial bombardment during the Second World War<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140057"><span lang="EN-US">Neapolitan
Gate</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1511 built
by <span style="color: red;">workers from Lombardy region</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937041"></a><a name="_Toc441140058"><span lang="EN-US">S. Maria del
Trivio</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Mary of the Trivium<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1622 <span style="color: red;">Carlo Maderno </span>(1556/1629), but completed only in 1726<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Façade 1840
<span style="color: red;">Giuseppe Andreoli</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The bell
tower is known as the <i>Tower of the
Trivium</i> 1353 in Romanesque-Gothic style<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140059"><span lang="EN-US">Town
Hall</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal">1572 <span style="color: red;">Giacomo Della Porta </span>(1533/1602) designed by <span style="color: red;">Jacopo Barozzi aka Vignola </span>(1507/13)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Finished in
1741 by <span style="color: red;">Filippo Barigioni </span>(about 1680/1753)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt
after its destruction in World War Two<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Home to the
CIVIC ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The jewel
of the museum is the incredibly wonderful "Sarcophagus with the labors of
Hercules"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Volscian
Terracotta"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Slab
of the Praying Man" Christian tombstone of the fourth century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140060"><span lang="EN-US">Diocesan
Museum</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">SEVEN ROOMS
in the cloister of the Cathedral of St. Clement<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
and Child with Angels” 1427 masterpiece by Gentile di Niccolò aka <span style="color: red;">Gentile da Fabriano</span> (about 1370/1427)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
and Child" about 1482 Antonio Aquili aka Antoniazzo Romano (about 1435-40/1508)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">"There
are influences of Piero Della Francesca and Melozzo Da Forlì, combined with
memories of the archaic tradition of Roman liturgy" (Antonio Paolucci)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US"><i>"One of
the finest works of the Roman painter, possibly dated at an advanced stage of
his production closer to the paintings of the 1480s, influenced by Melozzo
(...) The theme of 'Our Lady of the Sill' is a theme that is native of
Florence, appearing in artistic production during the mid fifteenth century
(...) and then widely propagated even in the Umbrian and Roman areas. (...) The
first influences from Melozzo da Forli are felt in the roundness of the faces
and in the monumental expansion of the precious Virgin Mary" (Anna
Cavallaro)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
and Child copy of the icon of St. Augustine" 1486 also by Antonio Aquili aka
<span style="color: red;">Antoniazzo Romano</span>, with small board at the base defining
it as a votive offering after the plague that had hit Velletri during the years
1483-1486<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US"><i>"The board
shows the Madonna (...) according to the Byzantine iconography of the Odigitria
(She Who Leads the Way), the child wearing a robe highlighted with gold and
blessing in the Greek manner. (...) It is one of the most interesting piece of
evidence of Antoniazzo being a copyist of Marian icons: it is in fact a copy offered
for the devotion of the citizens of Velletri, painted with a modern language,
of the medieval icon that is located on the main altar of the Roman church of
St. Augustine. (...) Antoniazzo saves at the same time the purpose of worship
and the expression of the latest
artistic trends: the figures are in fact regulated by a precise proportional scale
which is missing in the original" (Anna Cavallaro)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Four
fragments of Exultet" membrane of the twelfth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"History
of the Passion" French membrane of the XIII century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Reliquary
of the Cross" in gold of the eleventh century, known as <i>Croce Veliterna</i>
(Cross of Velletri). It was stolen and recovered in 1998<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">"Madonna
of the Rosary with Sts. Dominic, Catherine of Siena and John the Baptist"
1741 by <span style="color: red;">Sebastiano Conca </span>(1680/1764) for the Fiscari
family from Velletri </span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-76540809428177413342020-11-16T08:36:00.005-08:002020-11-16T08:36:18.159-08:00VEIO<p>Etruscan
rival of Rome for a long time and conquered in 396 BC by Camillus</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Julius Caesar
declared it a colony, it was declared municipium by Augustus (27 BC/14 AD) and
abandoned after Hadrian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
extended for about 190 hectares (470 acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140054"><span lang="EN-US">Walls</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Dating back
to the fifth century BC, built in square work technique (<i>opus quadratum</i>) in tuff blocks (size 80 x 50 x 50 cm)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the base
the walls were more than 2 m (6.5 feet) thick and tapering upwards, reaching a
height of 5/8 m (16.4 / 26.2 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
perimeter of the fortification, with at least ten gates, exceeded 8 km (5
miles) and some sections of the walls are still visible<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140055"><span lang="EN-US">Archaeological
site</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Stretch of paved
Roman road above traces of an Etruscan road<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">CASCATA
DELLA MOLA (Waterfall of the Grindstone) with medieval mill nearby<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the right
SACRED POOL beyond which there are the foundations of the TEMPLE built in 500
BC (demolished in the fourth century BC) conventionally known as Temple of
Apollo, but in fact dedicated to MENERVE (the Roman Minerva), the most notable
example of Tuscan temple known<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Square layout
of 18,5 m (61 feet) per side. Maybe there were three cellas inside<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROMAN VILLA
OF CAMPETTI<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">10,000 m²
(2.5 acres) probably a public complex, maybe a place of worship and area for
bathing provided with a cistern, nympheaum and rooms typical of baths facilities<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Outside of the fenced archaeological area<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TOMB OF
DUCKS (seventh century BC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TOMB OF THE
BELL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TOMB OF THE
ROARING LIONS, discovered in 2006, with paintings of water birds and roaring
lions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Also, 2 km away
there is the ACROPOLIS with traces of walls and urban planning<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Remains
of a temple building believed to be the TEMPLE OF JUNO QUEEN</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-22058714282465592752020-11-16T08:35:00.006-08:002020-11-16T08:35:31.909-08:00VALMONTONE<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 303 m (994 feet). 4,300 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe it is
an ancient town. It is mentioned by the sources for the first time in the
twelfth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 1651 it
passed from the Barberini to the Pamphilj family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
almost completely destroyed during the Second World War<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140049"><span lang="IT">Palazzo Doria Pamphilj</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">Doria Pamphilj Palace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1654/70,
for Prince Camillo Pamphili after having demolished the old Castle of the Sforza
family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built at
the top of the village, massive as a fortress with 365 rooms<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In ELEVEN ROOMS
frescoes "Four Elements and Four Continents":<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"America"
and "Africa" 1657 by <span style="color: red;">Pier Francesco Mola </span>(1612/66)
who directed the works<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Air"
1661 by <span style="color: red;">Mattia Preti </span>(1613/99)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US"><i>"It was
here that for the first time the method of using the venerable baroque concepts
of solid organization and clear and effective structure, as well as to
emphasize the individuality and firmness of each figure, was abandoned and
replaced by the system to punctuate the entire ceiling with figures seemingly
placed at random, so that the eye looks in vain for a center or a place to
stop. In comparison to the fresco of Preti in Valmontone, even contrasting works
as the Barberini ceilings of Cortona and Sacchi have key elements in common.
The work of Preti, on the other hand, shows stylistic idiosyncrasies which soon
would become current not only in painting but also in sculpture during the late
Baroque period" (Rudolf Wittkower)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Fire"
and "Asia" 1658/59 by <span style="color: red;">Francesco Cozza </span>(1605/82)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Hall
of the Prince" 1658/59 by <span style="color: red;">Gaspard Dughet </span>(1615/75)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Water"
and "Hall of the Prince" 1658/59 by <span style="color: red;">Guillaume
Courtois aka Borgognone </span>(1628/79)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Earth"
1657 by <span style="color: red;">G.B Tassi<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The palace
is home to the ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF VALMONTONE with finds from
archaeological sites nearby:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The village
of coal miners of <i>Colle Carbone</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
production area and the necropolis of <i>Colle
dei Lepri</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The mansion,
baths and furnace of <i>Colle Pelliccione</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937033"></a><a name="_Toc441140050"><span lang="IT">Collegiata dell'Assunta</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">Collegiate of the Assumption<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1685/89 <span style="color: red;">Mattia De Rossi</span> (1637/95) with an octagonal dome. Next
to the Palazzo Doria Pamphili<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"S.
Francis adoring the Crucifix" by <span style="color: red;">Andrea Pozzo </span>(1642/1709)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3<sup>rd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
of the Rosary" by <span style="color: red;">Giacinto Brandi </span>(1621/91)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">MAIN ALTAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Assumption"
by <span style="color: red;">Lorenzo Gramiccia </span>(1702/95)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3<sup>rd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">"Annunciation"
by <span style="color: red;">Ciro Ferri </span>(1634/89)<o:p></o:p></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937034"></a><a name="_Toc441140051">Santuario del Gonfalone</a><o:p></o:p></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Sanctuary
of the Banner<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built during the Renaissance period , completely rebuilt after the war with the
only portal of 1508 left of the original church<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140052"><span lang="EN-US">Rainbow
Magicland</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Amusement
park opened in 2011 on an area of 600,000 m² (148 acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
constantly expanding and could potentially cover an area of 1,800,000 m² (445
acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 2012 it
was visited by about 1,000,000 people<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">It
consists of 31 attractions and the main theme of the park is magic</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-65552503108389738722020-11-16T08:34:00.002-08:002020-11-16T08:34:17.123-08:00VALLEPIETRA<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 825 m (3,000 feet). 400 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is a
resort area in the summer, known for the production of objects made out of beech
wood<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937030"></a><a name="_Toc441140047"><span lang="EN-US">Santuario della
SS. Trinità</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Sanctuary
of the Holy Trinity<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1,137 m
(3,700 feet), about 8km (5 miles) from Vallepietra<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built during the fifth century AD above ancient ruins and partly dug into the
rock at the foot of the vertical wall of 300 m of COLLE DELLA TAGLIATA (1,662
meters - 5,450 feet), east end of MONTE AUTORE (1,853 meters - 6,080 feet) the
highest peak in the province of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Numerous
frescos, some faded. The most important dates back to the twelfth century:
"Holy Trinity" with three identical figures (the only one in Italian iconography)
in the act of blessing, while holding the Gospel open with the left hand<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The
Feast of the Holy Trinity takes place on the Sunday after Pentecost with
processions and the <i>canto delle zitelle </i>(singing of the spinsters)</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-36895193694862284192020-11-16T08:33:00.003-08:002020-11-16T08:33:27.644-08:00TUSCULUM<p>Legendary foundation
attributed to Telegonus, son of Ulysses and Circe</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was
considered a colony of Alba Longa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Objects
dating back to Neolithic (Stone Age), Eneolithic (Copper Age) and the early
Iron Age were found<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The citizen
of Tusculum Octavius Mamilius would have married a daughter of king Tarquin
the Proud, who, banished from Rome took refuge at Tusculum. Hence would have
been generated the confrontation between Romans and Latins that ended with the
Roman victory of 499 BC by Lake Regillo and the resulting supremacy of Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Tusculum was
the first city to obtain Roman citizenship in about 380 BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">During the
civil war Tusculum sided with Marius and Sulla in 82 BC had his vengeance
imposing here a colony of his veterans<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Famous for the
many villas (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tuscolana</i>) of Sulla,
Cato of Utica, Asinius Pollio, Tiberius, Agrippina, Nero, Galba, Matidia and,
more importantly Cicero <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the family
of the Conti di Tuscolo (Counts of Tusculum) have been three popes Sergius III
(904/911), John XI (931/935) and John XII (955/963)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The son of
Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI, in exchange for his coronation, gave support to
the Romans for the destruction of Tusculum on the 17<sup>th</sup> of April 1191.
The city was razed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
Tuscolanum survivors were blinded and mutilated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Near
Tusculum were the welling sources of the ancient Roman aqueducts <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aqua Tepula</span></span> and <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Aqua Iulia</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">EXCAVATIONS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">First
excavations 1804/20 for Lucien Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, then 1825/40 for
Maria Cristina of Sardinia and during the rest of the nineteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">More
excavations in the years 1952/57 and recently<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The access
roads were the Via Latina and the Via Labicana. </span><span lang="IT">Via
Tuscolana is a medieval name<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140045"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Archaeological
site</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">AMPHITHEATER
barely visible<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Building which
was maybe the Villa of Tiberius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paved road known
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Via dei Sepolcri</i> (Tombs Street)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Walls in
square work (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">opus quadratum</i>) in
blocks of lava stone<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Cistern
with fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FORUM<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">THEATER maybe
of the first half of the first century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Behind the
auditorium there is a cistern with fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">ACROPOLIS
where nothing is visible but which was to be the main temple of Castor and
Pollux, and perhaps also that of Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-18891084292112528642020-11-16T08:32:00.007-08:002020-11-16T08:32:46.312-08:00TREVIGNANO ROMANO<p><i><span lang="IT">Altitude
173 m (570 feet). </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">5,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe on
the site of the ancient city of <i>Sabatia</i>
which gave the original name to Lake Bracciano (<i>Lacus Sabatinus</i>) and with which the findings of Etruscan chamber
tombs with rich furnishings in the Olivetello district kept in the
Archaeological Museum have to be connected<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937024"></a><a name="_Toc441140041"><span lang="IT">Museo Civico Archeologico Etrusco-Romano</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">Civic Archaeological Museum Etruscan-Roman<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
ground floor of the TOWN HALL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TOMB OF THE
FLABELLI (fans) 650/630 BC, found intact with amazing "Bronze flabellum"
which gave its name to the grave<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Two jars
on supports"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Fragments
of wagon" and other about 60 various objects<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Intact
burial of warrior" of the eighth century BC from Rigostano with ornaments
and weapons, found in 1989<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">There are also kits from La Macchia, Pianura,
La Bellera<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937025"></a><a name="_Toc441140042"><span lang="IT">Chiesa dell'Assunta</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Church
of the Assumption<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built
during the sixteenth century, renovated in the years 1786/94<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Apse
grandiose "Transit and crowning of the Virgin Mary" 1517 by an <span style="color: red;">unknown painter influenced by Raffaello Sanzio</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1<sup>st</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Modern copy
(1942) of the "Triptych with Jesus Enthroned, the Virgin Mary and St. John"
the oldest reproduction (thirteenth century by di Nicolò di Pietro Paolo and
his son Pietro) of the <i>acheropita</i>
image (not painted by human hand) kept in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Sancta
Sanctorum</span></span> in Piazza S. Giovanni Laterano<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937026"></a><a name="_Toc441140043"><span lang="EN-US">S. Caterina</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Catherine<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built over an ancient Roman building of which remain some blind arches in <i>opus reticulatum</i> of black flint<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">"Sepulchral
monument of the abbot Tommaso Silvestri (1744/89)" the greatest Italian educator
of the deaf and inventor of the "phonic method"</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-85036736765507813932020-11-16T08:31:00.000-08:002020-11-16T08:31:02.313-08:00TORRIMPIETRA<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 40 m (131 feet). 3,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Farming
village around the Falconieri Castle<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the area
were found <i>amygdalas</i>, almond-shaped
tools used by hunters in the Lower Paleolithic (between 2,500,000 and 120,000
years ago) made of hard rock and more rarely bone by chipping on both sides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937021"></a><a name="_Toc441140038"><span lang="EN-US">Castello
Falconieri</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Falconieri
Castle<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Known since
1254 as a possession of the Norman family Alberteschi. It later passed into the
hands of the Anguillara, the Massimo, and the Peretti families<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In early
1600s, the Prince Michele Peretti, nephew of Sixtus V, built a new, large and
luxurious mansion, sold in 1639 to the Falconieri family who had the staircase
leading to the main floor built and commissioned the church to <span style="color: red;">Ferdinando Fuga </span>(1699/1782)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
second half of 1800s, the Falconieri family line ended and the castle had a
period of decline, until 1926 when it became the property of Senator Luigi
Albertini who, with his son Leonardo and his son-in-law Nicolò Carandini, engaged
in a massive reclamation work of the farm and in the restoration of the castle,
the church and the surrounding village<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Interior
decorations for the Jubilee of 1725, including the main floor "Visit to
the castle of Pope Benedict XIII Orsini (1724/30)" by <span style="color: red;">Pier Leone Ghezzi </span>(1674/1755) for Alessandro
Falconieri<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937022"></a><a name="_Toc441140039"><span lang="EN-US">S. Antonio</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Anthony<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First half
of the eighteenth century by <span style="color: red;">Ferdinando Fuga</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Octagonal
layout<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Frescoes
"St. Anthony hermit" by <span style="color: red;">Pier Leone Ghezzi </span>(1674/1755)
and "Crucifix and the blessed of the Falconieri house " of his school</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-23865489644610514592020-11-16T08:29:00.006-08:002020-11-16T08:29:55.461-08:00TOLFA<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 484 m (1,590 feet). 5,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Agricultural
village famous for the leather craft at the center of an area rich in iron no
longer extracted<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Among the
historic buildings, the CHIESA DELLA MADONNA DELLA ROCCA (Church of Our Lady of
the Rock) e il PALAZZO DEI PRIORI (Palace of the Priors)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc439937017"></a><a name="_Toc441140034"><span lang="EN-US">Santuario della
Madonna della Sughera</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Shrine
of Our Lady of Sughera<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built for
Agostino Chigi (1466/1520) who had a monopoly in the extraction of alum in this
area<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140035"><span lang="EN-US">Rocca</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Fortress<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1100,
damaged in 1799 by Napoleon's troops who choked in blood the rebellion of the
Tolfa peasants <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The outer
walls and the round tower of the fourteenth century built by the Frangipane
family are kept<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441140036"><span lang="EN-US">Former
Capuchin Monastery</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Beautiful
cloister of the sixteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">It
houses the MUSEO CIVICO (Civic Museum) with many Etruscan artifacts</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-91092221479165478432020-11-16T07:00:00.005-08:002020-11-16T08:28:07.871-08:00TIVOLI<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 235 m (770 feet). 50,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
founded around 1215 BC as <i>TIBUR</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
finally defeated by Rome in 338 BC at <i>Pedum</i>,
corresponding to the current city of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Gallicano</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
Middle Ages it was a free town and bishopric<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
independent until 1816 when it was annexed the Papal States until 1870<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139983"><span lang="EN-US">Duomo
(Cathedral of San Lorenzo)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe originally
built during the fifth century on the area of the ancient <i>Roman Forum</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt during
the eleventh/twelfth centuries<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Of this reconstruction
only the Romanesque BELL TOWER remains <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt
again during the years 1635/1650 for Cardinal Giulio Roma<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">2<sup>nd</sup>
RIGHT - CHAPEL OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Heavenly
Glory, Saints and Stories of the Birth of Jesus" about 1655 by <span style="color: red;">Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi </span>(1606/80) from Bologna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3<sup>rd</sup>
RIGHT - CHAPEL OF St. LAWRENCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Four
paintings "Stories of St. Lawrence": two above by <span style="color: red;">Ludovico Gimignani </span>(1643/97), two below by <span style="color: red;">Pietro Locatelli </span>(about 1637/1710), both pupils of Pietro
Da Cortona<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">4<sup>th</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Wooden
sculpture with "Deposition" 1220/25<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">APSE AND
NAVE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Stories
of St. Lawrence" about 1817 by <span style="color: red;">Carlo Labruzzi </span>(1747/1817)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">2<sup>nd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">“Triptych
of the Saviour with St. John the Evangelist and the Virgin Mary” about XII
sec., silver lining embossed with "Annunciation, saints and
evangelists" maybe by the <span style="color: red;">Benedictine monks of
Farfa<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frescoes
"Stories of Christ" 1650/52 by <span style="color: red;">Vincenzo
Manenti </span>(1600/74)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1<sup>st</sup>
LEFT - CHAPEL OF THE HOLY PERSIAN MARTYRS <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Altar piece
and frescoes "Stories of the Holy Persian martyrs" by <span style="color: red;">Bartolomeo Colombo</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">SACRISTY<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Vault
"Glory of St. Lawrence" by <span style="color: red;">Giovanni Francesco
Grimaldi </span>(1606/80) from Bologna<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839729"></a><a name="_Toc441139984"><span lang="EN-US">S. Pietro della
Carità</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US"> St. Peter of Charity<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built,
according to tradition, at the end of the fifth century for the pope from
Tivoli Simplicio (468/483) above a Roman villa, maybe originally owned by
Quintus Cecilius Pius Metellus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt during
the twelfth century and restored and brought back to medieval forms in 1950
following the American bombing during the Second World War<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139985"><span lang="EN-US">S.
Maria Maggiore</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Mary Major<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Built,
according to tradition, at the end of the fifth century for the pope from
Tivoli Simplicio (468/483)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt
during the twelfth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">BELL TOWER
1590<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Fragments
of Cosmatesque floor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
right "Wooden Crucifix" of the fifteenth century maybe by <span style="color: red;">Baccio da Montelupo </span>(1469/about 1523)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the MAIN
ALTAR "Our Lady of the Graces" maybe by <span style="color: red;">Jacopo
Torriti </span>(active 1270/1300)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139986"><span lang="EN-US">S.
Silvestro</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Sylvester<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built in the twelfth century, originally with three naves, reduced to one in the
seventeenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Opposite
the church FOUNTAIN OF PIAZZA S. SILVESTRO, built in the sixteenth century by
the same workers who were working during that same period in Villa d'Este<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TRIUMPHAL
ARCH AND APSE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frescoes
"Legend of Emperor Constantine and St. Sylvester" second half of the
twelfth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139987"><span lang="IT">Rocca Pia</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="IT">Pius Fortress<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1462 for pope Pius II Piccolomini (1458/64)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was built
with materials taken from the nearby Roman amphitheater</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a name="_Toc441139988" style="text-indent: 0in;"><b><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" lang="EN-US" style="color: #3d85c6; font-size: large; line-height: 110%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Villa
Adriana</span></b></a></p>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian’s
Villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The exact
extension of the villa is not known but it was huge for sure, at least 120
hectares (300 acres), about twice as much as Pompeii, which had an extension of
63 hectares (156 acres) within the walls<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The area is
currently open to the public for about 40 hectares (100 acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was built
in three successive phases from 118 to 137 AD for the emperor Hadrian (117/138)
above a pre-existing republican villa of the second century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Most of the
buildings were completed in 125 (first phase 118/125) when Hadrian came back
from his first trip to Greece and in the East<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The part of
the villa built at the time of Hadrian is almost all in mixed work (<i>opus mixtum</i>), one of the last examples
of this type of construction that would not be used again during the Antonine
period<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">THREE
LEVELS:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1) Noble level
for the emperor and his court<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">2) Lower
floor for servants such as the 100 <i>camerelle</i>
(small rooms)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3) Further
lower floor with a system of underground tunnels for cars or pedestrians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The project
is attributed to <span style="color: red;">Hadrian</span> himself who maybe was
an architect and had as model the Ptolemaic Palace of Alexandria that occupied
a third of the city and that was the model also for the Domus Aurea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian
perhaps wanted to imitate other places here, especially Greek, according to a
common practice at the time for at least 200 years: the Lyceum, the Academy,
the Prytaneion, the Pecile in Athens, the Canopus in the Nile delta, the Valley
of Tempe in Thessaly<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
hypothesis that he would have reproduced the buildings which had struck him in
his many travels in the provinces of the empire does not stand up, having made his
trips after the construction of most of the villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One source
for this hypothesis is the book "Vita Hadriani" (Life of Hadrian) by
Elius Spartianus from the "Historia Augusta" which, having been
written at least 200 years after the age of Hadrian, is not very reliable<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian’s
travels were the clearest expression of the new conception of the empire after
the conquests of his predecessor Trajan had brought the boundaries to the
maximum expansion<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian was
born in Italica (7 km - 4.3 miles - from Seville) as Trajan, and was his secretary<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Unlike
Trajan, Hadrian was never officially adopted through an introduction in the
Senate. His rise to power was the consequence of an alleged appointment made by
Trajan dying<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In reality
it is very likely that this was a hoax organized by Plotina, wife of Trajan, who
would have deftly orchestrated the operation, the so-called "conspiracy of
women" including Vibia Sabina wife of Hadrian and daughter of Matidia, who
was the sister of Trajan and who was deified by Hadrian after her death<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He
abandoned immediately the new provinces of Arabia and Mesopotamia conquered by
Trajan and organized all the other provinces of the empire. He decided to visit
the provinces in person in order to adapt the structures of the empire to the
new needs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Steeped in
the Greek culture, Hadrian was able to blend Hellenistic sophistication with
the practical governing capacity of the Romans, and of this singular fusion we
find the plastic expression in this villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">After his
death the villa continued to be part of the assets of the imperial house<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Over the
centuries it suffered a slow decline and it was stripped of its marbles, used
in many buildings and medieval churches<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
majority of the names of the villa’s locations belongs to the imagination of
Pirro Ligorio (about 1513/83) who began excavations in the villa in 1549 for
Ippolito d'Este<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
early 1700s much of the villa was acquired by the Conte family who began a
campaign of excavations and adorned it with cypress trees and vines<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">After the
unification of Italy the villa became public<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Excellent
restoration work was carried out in the 1950s and also the 1970s with the
relocation of the dome in the Great Baths<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At least
500 sculptures were found in the villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Among the CENTURIES-OLD
TREES:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US">Big cypress</span></i><span lang="EN-US"> close to the Nymphaeum with the Temple of
Venus (diameter 4.30 m - 14 feet) in whose trunk a hackberry grew <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Nearby there
is a unique <i>taxus baccata</i> shaped as
an umbrella<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Near the
Canopus there is a beautiful <i>olive tree</i>
of more than 5 m (16.5 feet) in diameter</span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139989"><span lang="EN-US">Pecìle</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">18<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Large
rectangular area bounded by a wall 9 m (30 feet) high and about 90 (300 feet) long,
through which there are the current entrances to the villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
retaining wall was surrounded by a portico that curved around the ends of the
wall itself: it was the <i>Porticus Miliaria</i>
used for shaded walks with easily measurable distances <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
originally surrounded by a peristyle, inspired by the Pecile, the famous
painted portico in Athens, around a large body of water, used as a fishpond<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The place, according
to tradition, was used for walks in the afternoon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The lower
west side with concave shape opens to the panorama of the Roman countryside<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139990"><span lang="EN-US">One
Hundred Small Rooms</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">32<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In order to
support the wide esplanade of the Pecile, it was necessary to construct a
building of about 15 m (49 feet) in height, divided into many rooms spread over
four floors plus a portico on the top floor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">They were
probably small rooms for the servants<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139991"><span lang="EN-US">Antinoèion</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">New
excavations between the one hundred rooms and the so-called vestibule have revealed
a road strangely shaped as an oval circus of unknown use, in front of three
temples with a base for a statue in the center<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">They are
probably the Temple of Antinous with, at the sides, the Temples of Isis and
Osiris<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Some
scholars believe it is the tomb of Antinous although the inscriptions on the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Pinciano Obelisk</span></span> found in the Palazzo
Sessoriano say it was placed on the tomb of Antinous and the tomb of Antinous
was in the garden of the emperor in Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">So maybe
not here but in the gardens of Adonis on Palatine Hill from which also come the
round panels of the Arch of Constantine<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In Hadrian's
Villa were found at least ten statues of Antinous; it is believed that at least
2,000 statues must have existed in ancient times of which there are currently
115 extanting<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139992"><span lang="EN-US">"Heliocaminus
Baths" or Sudatio</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">17<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe it
was a hall for sunbathing described by the sources. The sun would have come
through the windows on the walls that are now gone. Most probably it was a <i>sudatio </i>(or <i>laconicum</i>), a room for sauna heated also with stoves<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139993"><span lang="EN-US">"Hall
of the Philosophers" or Library</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">15<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hall with
an apse, whose name derives from the seven niches in the back wall, where it
was assumed, probably mistakenly considering the small depth, there would be
statues of the seven sages<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
actually almost certainly a library and the seven niches would have contained
wooden cabinets<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139994"><span lang="EN-US">"Maritime
Theatre"</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">14<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The name
was arbitrarily coined by Pirro Ligorio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
perhaps the one building that best reveals the complex personality of Hadrian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Small
island with curved vestibule, divided into small rooms with very varied design,
completely surrounded by an annular channel. It is framed by a round portico
supported by forty columns with architraves bearing traces of friezes with Mermen
and Nereids<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Access was
originally allowed through two drawbridges made of wood operable only from the
inside, so to guarantee privacy for the emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There was a
small spa area and a library<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian
could have enjoyed a great linear perspective with water games completed by a
fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The model
of this building is the Palace of Syracuse by Dionysius the Elder of the fifth
century BC, where, as Plato wrote, there was an island<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139995"><span lang="EN-US">Courtyard
of the “Libraries”</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">13<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One of the
three great peristyles of the so-called Palace is surrounded by a portico with
Corinthian columns<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It owes its
name to the adjacent buildings, traditionally called "LATIN LIBRARY" <b><i>9</i></b>
and "GREEK LIBRARY" <b><i>7</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Two twin buildings,
vertical as tower, thought to be summer <i>triclinia</i>
(dining rooms) by some scholars, in place of the traditional misidentification
as libraries<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Next is the
LOWER TERRACE OF THE “LIBRARIES” <b><i>5</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139996"><span lang="EN-US">"Hospitalia"
or Barracks for the Praetorians</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">12<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
north side of the peristyle there is a long building, originally two-story high,
divided into ten rooms connected by a wide corridor, completed by a spacious
lounge which was maybe a place for worship<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There were
two latrines at the corners<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Each room
had three rectangular alcoves and mosaic floors with black and white tiles<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Near the barracks
there is the MAIN ENTRANCE TO THE VILLA with narrow and small doors to
facilitate checks<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139997"><span lang="EN-US">Imperial
Triclinium</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">10<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Black and
white mosaic floors with geometric and floral motifs, some of the best
preserved in the whole villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe it
was just destined to middle-ranking staff of the Emperor, perhaps the officers
of the court pretoria<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139998"><span lang="EN-US">Terrace
and Pavilion of Tempe</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Large
terrace <b><i>4</i></b>, extending beyond the "Hospitalia" on the charming
little valley <b><i>11</i></b> of the Acqua Ferrata stream, to which Adriano wanted to give
the name of a valley of the Greek region of Thessaly, famous in mythology and
classical poetry<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Unfortunately
it was ruined by awful modern constructions that have not spared even this
territory<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139999"><span lang="EN-US">Imperial
Palace</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">19<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Core of the
imperial residence built over a preexisting republican villa of the second
century BC. Some rooms and single walls of the villa were kept in the new
palace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">PERISTYLE OF
THE PALACE <b><i>20</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
majestic halls at the heart of the palace Hadrian exercised his imperial
authority<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is the
second of the three large colonnaded courtyards of the villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
overlooked by a large room with a basilica plan divided in three naves. In the floor
five panels decorated with polychrome mosaic were inserted, now no longer here<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">To the east
are the PALACE GARDENS <b><i>21</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">HALL OF THE
DORIC PILASTERS <b><i>23</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was maybe
the great peristyle that preceded the ROYAL HALL WITH APSE for the emperor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It stands
out for his severe linearity in the pletora of curved lines that characterizes
the villa of Hadrian <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Hadrian
however did not fail to leave his mark in the innovative barrel vault of the peristyle
and in the extension of the pillars, which acquire a completely different
character than the traditional Doric order with an antiquarian connotation and
a retrospective taste. It was a sign of appreciation for the archaic world and the
Attic style<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Probably
the hall was originally open as the walls are too thin to support a covered
vault<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
originally paved with marble<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140000"><span lang="EN-US">Golden
Square</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">25<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Large open
space of almost square shape made with high quality materials and architectural
solutions celebrated by scholars and architects, including Francesco Borromini
(1599/67) who visited and drew these mixtilinear structures that no doubt inspired
him with their play of alternation between concave and convex surfaces<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">VESTIBULE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Topped with
a dome made of spherical segments supported by eight columns<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center there were large fountains<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In one of
the adjacent rooms some of the most beautiful mosaics of the villa were kept<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">PERISTYLE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Bordered by
a double portico with sixty granite and <i>cipollino
</i>marble columns, overlooked by the magnificent imperial hall<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here were
found portraits of Sabina, Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla now at the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">National Museum of Palazzo Massimo</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Probably
this area of the villa was a large imperial <i>triclinium</i> dedicated to banquets<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On either
side of the central hall, that maybe was roofless, there are areas covered by
barrel vaults: probably the main room was a <i>coenatio</i>
(dining room)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Towards the
valley at a lower level there are remains of an arena for gladiators <b><i>26</i></b>
and further on maybe a stadium <b><i>27</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140001"><span lang="EN-US">Firemen's
Barracks</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">22<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Multi-story
building around a central courtyard, called Firemen’s Barracks because it is similar
to the one found in Ostia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
definitely a service structure maybe for firefighters or for servants, possibly
used as kitchen or warehouse, but more likely it was the barracks for the
Praetorians<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140002"><span lang="EN-US">Building
with Fish Pool</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">29<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On three
levels: intermediate level of service (lower) and upper and lower floors with <i>suspensurae</i> (small pillars raising the
floor so that hot steam could be channeled under the floor in order the warm up
the room) that prompted some scholars to define the building as "Winter
Palace"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center large <i>vivarium</i> (pool) for fish<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was maybe
the actual area where Hadrian would have lived<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140003"><span lang="EN-US">Nymphaeum
(So-called Stadium)</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">30<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Structure
near the Pecìlea once thought to be a stadium<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Excavations
of 1958 made it possible to identify it as a <i>nymphaeum</i> (monumental fountain), with a semi-circular pool and
fountains with rich water games<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">To the east
of the house a portico with fishpond overlooks, while to the west, there is a
building divided in two sections<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here was
found the beautiful <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">"Niobide
Chiaramonti"</span></span> now in the Gregorian-Profane Museum in the Vatican<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140004"><span lang="EN-US">Small
Baths</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">34<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe for
women, with an octagonal room, a <i>tepidarium</i>
(room for medium temperature baths), and a room with an elliptical shape with
two basins in the apses<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The pool
was lined with marble staircases<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was one
of the most opulent buildings of the villa. Maybe it was connected to the
palace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140005"><span lang="EN-US">Large
Baths</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">38<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe for
men, with the typical succession of rooms in Roman thermal baths, that here are
visible backwards: the <i>frigidarium</i>,
the room intended for cold baths, a huge hall with an apse and a circular room<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In other
rooms the pipes are still visible, passing under the floors, for the
circulation of the steam generated by boilers, the <i>praefurnia</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140006"><span lang="EN-US">“Vestibule”</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">37<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is in
fact not a vestibule, but maybe rooms and gardens of passage between Pecile and
Canopus with large <i>lararium</i> (area
dedicated to the worship of the gods of the family) of Hadrian’s family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here there
was maybe a secondary entrance <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140007"><span lang="EN-US">Building
with three Exedra</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">31<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Two wings:
one with open spaces and the other with heated rooms and precious marbles<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Maybe it
was a sumptuous vestibule to the building with fish pool, which was probably
the private residence of Hadrian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140008"><span lang="EN-US">“Praetorian
Pavilion”</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">39<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
identification as accommodation for the Praetorian guards is definitely wrong<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was maybe
functioning as accommodation for servants or even used as a warehouse<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140009"><span lang="EN-US">Canopus</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">43<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Located in
a small valley, it is inspired by the Egyptian Canopus, the waterway that
connected Alexandria to the ancient city of Canopus, about 20 km (12.4 miles)
away, where Antinous, the handsome emperor's favorite, had drowned<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center of the channel, under water, there are two bases for two sculptural groups
of Scilla<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the far
end of the channel there is a large semicircular nymphaeum known as SERAPEUM,
covered by a half dome divided into segments and covered with white mosaic. It
mimics the shape of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Serapeum</span></span>
in Rome at the Campus Martius<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The walls
are punctuated by niches for statues. Water would have flown down the steps and
would have been collected in an external basin<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was a large
dining room (<i>triclinium</i>) known as <i>stibàdion</i> (semicircular triclinia) maybe
built in honor of Antinous<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Excavations
of the Canopus in the 1950s have unearthed sculptures and statues, now on
display in large part in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Vatican
Museums</span></span> and in the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Capitoline
Museums</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Of those
presented in the MUSEUM OF THE CANOPUS <b><i>40</i></b>, faithful casts were placed around
the channel that allow to picture the original decoration:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Four
Maidens Caryatids" copy of the <i>Korai</i>
by Callimacus, pupil of Phidias (<i>Korai </i>=<i> </i>women from Caria in Turkey, prisoners
of the Athenians) from the Erechtheum in Athens<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Two
Sileni Canephori", carrying baskets on their heads<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Personifications
of the Nile and Tiber Rivers"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Young
Warrior with Helmet"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Ares"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Hermes"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Two
"Amazons Wounded" from the original by Phidias (about 490/430 BC) and
Polykleitos of Argos (about 490/425 BC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Crocodile"
of <i>cipollino</i> marble<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140010"><span lang="EN-US">Summer
Residence</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">From the Museum
of the Canopus a steep path leads to this peripheral part of the villa, located
in a splendid panoramic position, at the center of a historic olive grove<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Perhaps the
difference in exposure between the second group and this group of buildings
overlooking the Risicoli Valley allowed the emperor to live in the palace
overlooking Tivoli during the winter and in the Little Palace with views
towards the Roman countryside during the summer<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140011"><span lang="EN-US">Tower
of Roccabruna</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">41<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The square
base remains visible. In the main façade there are two large semicircular
niches<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Inside
there is a large octagonal hall, covered by a dome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140012"><span lang="EN-US">Academy
or Little Palace</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">45<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Much of
this monument is still to be excavated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Around a
peristyle there are several buildings, including a hexagonal pavilion and the TEMPLE
OF APOLLO, fine round room with two floors, covered by a dome, now lost<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here were
found the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">"Two Centaurs"</span></span> in
gray marble now at the Capitoline Museums<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Further
north is the ODEON <b><i>47</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140013"><span lang="EN-US">Circular
temple of Venus Cnidia</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">3<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Exiting the
archaeological site, along an avenue of cypresses that starts from the Pecile,
it is possible to reach a clearing in the trees, at the center of which this
temple was rebuilt in 1958, using original architectural fragments, an exact
copy of the Temple of the Venus of Cnidus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center is the cast of a Roman copy of the Venus of Cnidus from the original by
Praxiteles (about 395/326 BC), kept in the Museum of the Canopus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
right of the temple, at the bottom of a lane, are the remains of the SO-CALLED
GYM <b><i>2</i></b>
that recent excavations have established to be probably a big sanctuary of Isis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Further on
LITTLE GREEK THEATRE <b><i>1</i></b> with part of the stands and of the
stage<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is one
of the few places in the whole villa that might actually correspond to the name
given in 1500s, having a circular orchestra according to the model for the Greek
theaters described by Vitruvius<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc441140014"><span lang="IT" style="color: #3d85c6; font-size: large;">Villa D'Este</span></a></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1550/72 <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio </span>(about
1513/83) for Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (Ferrara 1509 / Tivoli 1572), son of
Alfonso I d'Este and Lucrezia Borgia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Julius III
del Monte (1550/55) wanted to thank the cardinal by appointing him governor for
life of Tivoli for his contribution made to the papal election<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
governor's residence was originally an old and uncomfortable Benedictine
convent run by Franciscan friars and Ippolito II decided to transform it<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Pirro
Ligorio took advantage of a huge number of artists and craftsmen<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The construction,
however, followed the vicissitudes of the cardinal who was dismissed by Paul IV
Carafa (1555/59), then restored in the post by Pius IV Medici (1559/65) in
1560, then affected by the bad relations of Pius V Ghislieri (1566/72) with the
French, who had always been the cardinal’s best allies<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">More land
was acquired from two churches of different orders with operations that lasted
until 1566. The Aniene River was conveyed with new tunnels coming from the falls<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Materials
from the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Tomb of Cecilia Metella</span></span> were
used <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The cardinal
had just enough time to enjoy the opening of the villa in September 1572 with
the visit of Pope Gregory XIII Boncompagni (1572/85), and then, two months
later, he died <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Subsequent
owners of the villa after Ippolito II d'Este were two other d'Este cardinals:
Luigi d'Este until 1586 and Alessandro d'Este until 1624, who mantained it and
renewed it<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ercole III
d'Este left it to her daughter Maria Beatrice wife of Archduke Ferdinand of
Austria, through whom passed to the Habsburgs family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was eventually
left to wither away with the scattering of the antique collections, until
mid-1800, when one member of the Hohenlohe family fell in love with it,
restored it and put back in the center of mundane activities<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One of the
attendees was Franz Liszt who found in the villa inspiration for some of his
musical compositions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 1918 it
passed to the Italian state, it was restored and opened it to the public<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Other
restorations were made after World War II to repair bomb damage<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The decorations
were made by a large group of artists led by <span style="color: red;">Livio
Agresti </span>(about 1508/79) from Forlì<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">COURTYARD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Fountain
of Sleeping Venus"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140015"><span lang="EN-US">APPARTAMENTO
NOBILE - Ten rooms:</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">CENTRAL
HALL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ceiling
"Feast of the gods with portraits of Apollo, Bacchus, Diana and
Ceres" started by <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Muziano </span>(1532/92)
and completed by <span style="color: red;">Federico Zuccari </span>(about
1542/1609)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM II<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frescoes
"Stories of Catillus legendary founder of Tivoli" by <span style="color: red;">Livio Agresti</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM III<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ceiling
"Quadriga of Phoebus" by <span style="color: red;">Livio Agresti</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frescoes
"Legendary stories of Tivoli: story of King Anius and his daughter
Inone" (she was transformed into the Sibyl Albunea) by <span style="color: red;">Antonio Tempesta </span>(about 1555/1630) and <span style="color: red;">schools of Zuccari, Livio Agresti and Girolamo Muziano</span>.
The same artists also painted the frescoes "Stories of Noah and
Moses" in the ROOMS IV, V and VI<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM VII<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Council
of the Gods" and "Labors of Hercules" by <span style="color: red;">artists of the school of Girolamo Muziano</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM VIII (Room
of the Philosophers)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Paintings
with "Allegories of Virtues, Sciences and Arts"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Busts
of ancient philosophers"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140016"><span lang="EN-US">OLD
APARTMENT (Downstairs) - Ten rooms:</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">CENTRAL
HALL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Holy
Family and portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese" maybe by Pietro
Bonaccorsi aka <span style="color: red;">Perin del Vaga </span>(1501/47)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM II
(formerly library)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Copy of
Raphael’s painting "Fornarina" by Sebastiano Luciani aka <span style="color: red;">Sebastiano del Piombo </span>(1485/1547)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Copy of the
"Holy Family" by <span style="color: red;">Daniele da Volterra </span>(1509/66)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM III
(formerly bedroom)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
and Child with St. John the Baptist" maybe by <span style="color: red;">Antonio
Allegri aka Correggio </span>(1489/1534)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"St.
Andrew" by <span style="color: red;">Daniele da Volterra</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM IV<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Christ
Carrying the Cross" by <span style="color: red;">Girolamo Muziano</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM V<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Two copies from
originals by Barocci<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">CHAPEL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
of Reggio" by <span style="color: red;">Livio Agresti</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">ROOM IX<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Landscape"
by <span style="color: red;">Paul Brill </span>(1554/1626)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140017"><span lang="EN-US">GARDEN
and FOUNTAINS</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">A central
longitudinal axis and five main transverse axises<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Pirro Ligorio
exploited the old city walls as buttresses for the embankment, and calculated
exactly how much water was needed to run all the fountains<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">He built a
piping system and a long tunnel about 600 m (2,000 feet) long, under the city,
which brought water from the Aniene River to a basin: the water flow rate was as
much as 300 liters (80 gallons) per second <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">All the
fountains were therefore fed without any mechanical device, but only by exploiting
the natural pressure and the principle of communicating vessels<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">35,000 m²
(8.6 acres) of gardens in total, 250 jets, 60 pools of water, 255 waterfalls,
100 tanks, 50 fountains, 20 exedras and terraces, 30,000 plants in seasonal
rotation, 150 centuries-old tall trees, 15,000 ornamental plants and perennials
trees, 9,000 m² (2.3 acres) of paths, walkways and ramps<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">VIALONE<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Large
pathway parallel to the façade of the building for about 200 m (660 feet), with
the Grand Loggia on one side and the Europa Fountain on the other<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">GRAND LOGGIA<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1568/69, at
the end of the <i>Vialone</i> on the left,
although it was never fully completed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is also
known as <i>Cenacolo</i> (dining room)
because it was often used as a location for outdoor meals<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The view
from here is extraordinary<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">CAVE OF DIANA<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Coming out
of the villa, to the left of a path<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Mosaics of
stone, stucco, bas-reliefs and enamel decorations of <span style="color: red;">Lola
and Paolo Calandrino</span> and <span style="color: red;">Curzio Maccarone</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Few traces
remain of the colorful majolica floor<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
walls stucco reliefs of branches of quince and fruit baskets as well as high
reliefs with Neptune, Minerva, Caryatids, Muses with eyes made out of precious
stones and <i>five mythological scenes</i>:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1)
Transformation of Daphne, who in order to escape from Apollo, was turned into
laurel<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">2)
Andromeda freed by Perseus, having been chained as an offering to a sea monster
in order to appease the wrath of Poseidon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">3)
Metamorphosis of the hunter Actaeon into a stag, made by Artemis, to punish him
for daring to spy on her naked<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">4)
Transformation of Syrinx into hollow water reeds, in order to escape the love
of god Pan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">5) Callisto
is transformed into a bear, for the jealousy of Hera against Zeus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="IT">BICCHIERONE FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1661 <span style="color: red;">Gian Lorenzo
Bernini </span>(1598/1680) for Cardinal Rinaldo d'Este (1598/1680)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Also called
"Fountain of the Lily", placed under the Loggia of Pandora, on the
main axis of the garden<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">EUROPA FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
Vialone, opposite the Grand Loggia, with the shape of a triumphal arch<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There was
the sculpture, now in <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa Albani Torlonia</span></span>
in Rome, of Europa abducted by the white bull and a marble basin<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">PEGASUS FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Circular
pool with rock on which there is the winged horse Pegasus, born of the
beheading of Medusa: when on Mount Helicon, banging his hoof, gushed out the
source of Hippocrene, sacred to the muses<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
background, the Romanesque church of St. Peter of Charity, towards which one of
the gates of Villa d'Este open <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">HUNDRED FOUNTAINS<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Pirro
Ligorio </span><span lang="EN-US">(about
1513/83). On an avenue 100 m (330 feet) long that connects the Ovato Fountain with
the Rometta<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One hundred
jets in two overlapping rows of masks with anthropomorphic forms adorned with
symbols dear to the Cardinal:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Obelisks, small
ships, lilies of France and eagles (added in 1685 by Francesco II of Modena)
symbols of the Este family, the boat of St. Peter as a symbol of papal power<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here was
filmed the banquet scene of the movie Ben Hur<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">OVATO FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1567 <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio</span>. To the left of the Avenue of the
Hundred Fountains, also known as the <i>Fountain
of Tivoli</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In this
fountain the water coming from the Aniene River is collected and distributed to
other fountains<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rocks and
boulders placed by <span style="color: red;">Curzio Maccarone </span>to create a
scene representing the Tiburtini Mountains where the three rivers are generated:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center is the Sybil Albunea or Tiburtina, by <span style="color: red;">Giglio
della Vellita </span>symbolizing the ALBUNEO RIVER<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the flanking
niches there are two statues by <span style="color: red;">Giovanni Malanca </span>representing
the RIVERS ANIENE and ERCULANEO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On top of
the rock the Pegasus Fountain is visible, which seems to fit into the Ovato Fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
pillars of the semicircular nymphaeum TEN FOUNTAINS executed by <span style="color: red;">G.B. Della Porta </span>(1542/1602) and designed by <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
right side of the square FOUNTAIN OF BACCHUS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In two rooms
facing the square of the fountain there is the LABORATORIO MUSEO DIDATTICO DEL
LIBRO ANTICO (Laboratory and Educational Museum of Ancient Books) venue for
international seminars, conferences and educational activities, dealing with
the study, restoration, conservation and technical and scientific reconstruction
of ancient paper documents from papyrus documents through printed ones<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FOUNTAIN OF THE DRAGONS<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the
center of the garden. Also known as the <i>Fontana
della Girandola</i> (Fountain of the Catherine Wheel) for the hydraulic
mechanisms devised by <span style="color: red;">Tommaso da Siena</span>
reproducing gunshots and blasts<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was made,
according to legend, in one night, in 1572 by <span style="color: red;">Pirro
Ligorio</span>, as a tribute to Gregory XIII Boncompagni, guest at the villa,
whose emblem had winged dragons<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is more
likely that the forthcoming pope's visit convinced Luigi D'Este to erect the
fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Four
dragons arranged in a circle, with their backs turned to each other<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Niche
within which there is a large “Statue of Hercules” representing his eleventh labor:
for the golden apples of the Garden of the Hesperides he killed the dragon
Ladon with hundred heads<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">LA ROMETTA<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Designed in
1570 by <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio </span>and maybe even by <span style="color: red;">Ippolito II </span>himself, executed by the fountains expert
and plumber <span style="color: red;">Luigi Maccarone</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The Rometta
Belvedere open towards the Roman plain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Large basin
with a central representation of Rome sitting on a throne. It was partially
demolished during the nineteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">PERSEPHONE FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Conceived
as outdoor dining area<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
designed as "Fountain of the Emperors", but the emperor statues were
never carved, and during the seventeenth century was installed the stucco sculptural
group of Pluto kidnapping Persephone (<i>Proserpina</i>
in Italian), as two Sileni play sea harps and two dolphins shake the water<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The statues
of Persephone and of the dolphins are now lost<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FOUNTAIN OF THE OWL<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1596 <span style="color: red;">Raffaello Sangallo</span>, designed by <span style="color: red;">Giovanni Del Duca</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">So called
for the mechanism with metal birds that appeared on bronze branches in the
niche of the fountain, emitting chirps<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Another
mechanism made an owl appear, frightening the other birds with its howl and keeping
them quiet. The mechanism has been ruined over time, and only after a recent
restoration one has been remade recreated partly like the original<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Other parts
have been lost: the nymphaeum mosaics, reliefs and statues<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FOUNTAIN OF THE ORGAN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built during the years 1568/1611<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It owes its
name to the mechanism that used to emit organ sounds<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
another proto-Baroque tall building by <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio</span>,
with a façade including floral and marine decorations and four colossal
telamons by <span style="color: red;">Pirrin del Gagliardo</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Statues of
Apollo and Diana in the side niches<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Aedicula by
<span style="color: red;">Gian Lorenzo Bernini</span> to protect the hydraulic
organ<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Contraption
devised by <span style="color: red;">Claudio Vernard</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Several
attempts were made to restore the mechanism, and only with the last works the
fountain sounded again<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
originally decorated with a statue of Diana of Ephesus now in the Fountain of
Abundance. It overlooks the Neptune Fountan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">NEPTUNE FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1927 <span style="color: red;">Attilio Rossi </span>with <span style="color: red;">Emo Salvi </span>who
incorporated a pre-existing nymphaeum by <span style="color: red;">Pirro Ligorio</span>
which included the current "Statue of Neptune"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is the
most imposing fountain of the villa. It replaced a waterfall designed by
Bernini which was very much damaged<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FISHING PONDS<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Three large
rectangular basins for breeding valuable freshwater fish, eventually caught by
guests<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There were
in fact kiosks to rest and to keep fishing equipment<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">ARIADNE FOUNTAIN <o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
almost at the center of the parapet of the terrace<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is named
after a statue representing Ariadne sleeping which used to be located in the
central niche<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">RUSTIC FOUNTAINS or "FOUNTAINS
OF THE GOALS"<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Two
fountains in the lower part of the garden in the middle of two flowerbeds<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Three large
circular boulders, one on top of each other in descending orde, and covered
with moss<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FOUNTAIN OF NATURE<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Also known
as <i>Fountain of Abundance</i>, near the
boundary wall and the old entrance<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In front of
a background decorated with <i>tiburtino tartar</i>,
a calcareous concretion much used in this lower part of the garden, there is a
copy of "Diana of Ephesus" with many breasts, originally commissioned
to the Flemish artist <span style="color: red;">Gillis Van den Vliete </span>by Ippolito
II to decorate the Organ Fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Alessandro
d'Este had it moved in 1611 to its current position, more hidden, as to not
offend the principles of the Counter-Reformation and in its place he had the
hydraulic organ built that gave a new name to the upper fountain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h5><span lang="EN-US">FOUNTAINS OF THE ROTUNDA
or CYPRESS TREES FOUNTAIN<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Near the
old entrance<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Four low fountains
arranged in a circle in the rotunda of the centuries-old cypress trees, with small
jets, and triple basins made out of travertine<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the
garden there are also:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The
FOUNTAIN OF THE PROPHET, the FOUNTAIN OF THE EAGLES and the remains of an
ANCIENT ROMAN VILLA<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></p><h2 style="break-after: avoid; margin: 0.25in 0in 6pt 18.15pt; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><a name="_Toc441140018" style="text-indent: 0in;"><b><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" lang="EN-US" style="color: #5b9bd5; font-size: medium; line-height: 110%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Villa
Gregoriana</span></b></a></h2><p class="MsoNormal" style="break-after: avoid; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 18.15pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .25in; margin: 0.25in 0in 6pt 18.15pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 3; mso-pagination: lines-together; page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;"><a name="_Toc414995024"></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Very steep
valley, formerly known as <i>Valle dell'Inferno</i> (Hell Valley), excavated at
the foot of the ancient acropolis of Tivoli by the Aniene River, in the place
where the river enters the Roman countryside<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The overall
height that the Aniene falls down through the valley, today with two falls (originally
there were four), is about 130 m (426 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Since
ancient times, the river, which formed a large loop around the Acropolis and streamed
down towards the limestone plain, would periodically and dramatically flood, continuing
to dig the river bed: Pliny the Younger described one which took place in 105
AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is a
public park wanted by Gregory XVI Cappellari (1831/46) in 1832/35 to address
otherwise the flow of the Aniene with two parallel tunnels beneath Mount
Catillo 280 m (919 feet) long, designed by <span style="color: red;">Clemente
Folchi </span>after the disastrous flood of 1826 which had swept the city<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140019"><span lang="EN-US">Gregorian
Bridge</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built across the ancient bed of the river which had been diverted, and now only
the river bed for surplus water<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was a "useful"
gift from the pope to the people of Tivoli. It was destroyed by bombing in 1944
and rebuilt<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140020"><span lang="EN-US">Roman
Ruins</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Burial area
dating back to the imperial period of ancient Rome, ancient Valerius Bridge and
aqueduct that carried water from the Aniene River into the villa of Manlius
Valpiscus, the consul of the year 14 AD <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">HORSESHOE TERRACE
from which it is possible to see the BIG WATERFALL<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Down in the
middle of the park STIPA CHANNEL and NEPTUNE AND SIRENS CAVES with stalactites<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Up through
the park on the other side, MIOLLIS GALLERY small tunnel dug by the French General
Miollis in 1809<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Above is
the acropolis known as CASTROVETERE with the ROUND TEMPLE (also known as Temple
of Vesta but maybe dedicated to the tenth Sibyl Albunea from Tivoli) of the
late second century BC, and the RECTANGULAR TEMPLE (maybe dedicated to
Tiburnus) mid-second century BC, later transformed into the church of St.
George<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc441140021"><span lang="IT" style="color: #3d85c6; font-size: medium;">Other archaeological sites in Tivoli</span></a></h2>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140022"><span lang="IT">Mensa Ponderaria</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Office for
checking weights and measures of the food trade. Two niches lined with two
distinct building phases<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built for M. Varenus Diphilus, who also commissioned the construction of the AUGUSTEUM
HALL southwest of the Mensa Ponderaria with a trapezoidal apse (4.10 x 5.5 m -
13.4 x 18 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140023"><span lang="EN-US">Amphitheater</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Discovered
in 1948, excavated since 1957, built with mixed work technique (<i>opus mixtum</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140024"><span lang="EN-US">Lucano
Bridge</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Five
arches: four are visible, the fifth is buried, the third arch was cut and
restored already in ancient times<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140025"><span lang="EN-US">Tomb
of the Plautii</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">10/14 AD
high cylinder covered with travertine blocks reused in the Middle Ages as a watchtower
to protect the bridge<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There are various
inscriptions of members of the Plautii family belonging to the Aniensis tribe originally
from <i>Trebula Suffenas</i> (Ciciliano)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140026"><span lang="EN-US">Villa
of Cassius</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">End of the
republic/beginning of the empire<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Three
terraces of substructures oriented west<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here were
found in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries important sculptures now in
the Vatican Museums<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140027"><span lang="EN-US">Villa
known as Brutus’ Villa</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Just north
of that of Cassius with base characterized by hanging netting two colors with
geometric designs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140028"><span lang="EN-US">Republican
Villa known as Horace’s Villa</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">About 75/50
BC on three levels<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The upper
terrace is occupied by a modern building<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The two
lower terraces are oriented differently towards the landscape. At the lower
level there are three rooms: the two at the sides are tanks, the middle one is
a nympheum with a barrel vault<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140029"><span lang="EN-US">Villa
of Quintilius Varus</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Friend of
Virgil and Horace and relative of the Varus who was defeated in Teutoburg in 13
BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Beneath there
is the CHIESETTA DELLA MADONNA DI QUINTILIOLO (Small Church of Our Lady of
Quintiliolo), consisting of several buildings dating back from the late republican
period to the second century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is the
largest villa in this area, a little less than 6 hectares (15 acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140030"><span lang="EN-US">Tomb
of the Vestal Virgin Cossinia</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Funerary
monument with five steps in travertine and marble altar with dosserets (impost
blocks) dated to the second or third century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140031"><span lang="EN-US">Temple
of Tosse</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First half
of the fourth century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The use is
unknown: it is not known if it was a tomb of the Tuscia<i> gens</i>, a nympheaum, a temple of Venus, a temple to the Sun god, or
more likely the atrium of a monumental villa, transformed into a church by the
name of <i>S. Maria di Porta Scura</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441140032"><span lang="EN-US">Temple
of Hercules the Winner</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">About 90/82
BC, enormous: the square portico on three sides measures about 152 x 119 m (500
x 390 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Suburban
sanctuary built on gigantic substructures of uncertain work technique (<i>opus incertum</i>) with filled-up arches, on
the site of a villa of the republican period belonging to the Cecilii Metelli,
twice the size of the temple which was included in the villa itself<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The temple
at the center of the structure was <i>peripteros
sine postico</i> (surrounded by columns except for the rear) of 42 x 25 m (138
x 82 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built on a large podium and it was probably accessed by two staircases at the sides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The temple
faces a large theater of about 70 m (230 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The VIA
TIBURTINA (road from Rome to Tivoli) crosses the temple with an underground tunnel
with a barrel vault and tabernae for trade on both sides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was the
seat of an oracle based as that of <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Fortuna
Prenestina</span></span> on the extraction of the so called <i>sortes</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was eventually
occupied by a convent and then by a paper mill<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The
cult of Hercules protector of transhumant flocks was one of the largest in the
Lazio region and originated here: it was brought to Rome in the late republican
period</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-85692179591123493732020-11-16T06:55:00.006-08:002020-11-16T06:55:44.148-08:00SUBIACO<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 408 m (1,340 feet). 9,200 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It owes its
name (Subiaco = under the lake) to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Simbruina
Stagna</i> (watertights of the Simbruini Mountains) built at the behest of Nero
(54/68), damming the Aniene River at the foot of the Simbruini Mountains<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Here Nero
had a magnificent villa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apparently
Subiaco was founded at that time for the slaves working in the construction<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139972"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Seminary
Palace</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1715,
expanded in the years 1775/<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">80 by
</span><span style="color: red;">Pietro Camporese the Elder</span> (1726/81) and <span style="color: red;">Carlo Colombi</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139973"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Bridge
of St. Francis</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was
built on the Aniene River in 1358. It was restored in 1789 for Pope Pius VI
Braschi (1775/99)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839719"></a><a name="_Toc441139974"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839719;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rocca Abbaziale</span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839719;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc441139974;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Fortress
with Abbey<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was
built during the eleventh century by the <span style="color: red;">Abate Giovanni
</span>(John the Abbot)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was very
disputed. Since 1455 it was the seat of commendatory cardinals including in
1471 Rodrigo Borgia, later Pope Alexander VI (1492/1503)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Maybe
Lucrezia Borgia, Rodrigo Borgia’s daughter, was born here in 1480<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The abbey
passed eventually to the Colonna family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Another
commendatory cardinal who became pope was Pius VI Braschi (1775/99) who had the
architect <span style="color: red;">Pietro Camporese the Elder </span>connecting
all the buildings in order to have a single building<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In front of
the façade there is a garden with some RUINS OF NERO’S VILLA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Inside
there is the APARTMENT OF THE COLONNA FAMILY with frescoes maybe by the <span style="color: red;">school of Federico Zuccari </span>(about 1542/1609) and the
APARTMENT OF PIUS VI<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839720"></a><a name="_Toc441139975"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839720;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Cattedrale di
S. Andrea</span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839720;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc441139975;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cathedral of St. Andrew<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1766/89 <span style="color: red;">Pietro Camporese il Vecchio </span>(1726/81)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was rebuilt
after World War II<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">RIGHT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Miraculous
fishing" by <span style="color: red;">Sebastiano Conca </span>(1680/1764)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SACRISTY<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Madonna
with Child" maybe by the Florentine <span style="color: red;">Carlo Dolci </span>(1616/86)
or <span style="color: red;">Guido Reni </span>(1575/1642)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839721"></a><a name="_Toc441139976"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839721;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">S. Francesco</span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839721;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc441139976;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>St. Francis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1327, on
the old <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chapel of St. Peter in the Desert</i>,
dedicated in 1224 to St. Francis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1<sup>st</sup>
ALTAR ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Marriage
of the Virgin Mary" by Giulio Pippi aka <span style="color: red;">Giulio
Romano </span>(1499/1546)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3<sup>rd</sup>
ALTAR ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"St.
Francis Receiving the Stigmata" maybe by Sebastiano Luciani aka <span style="color: red;">Sebastiano del Piombo</span> (1485/1547)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MAIN ALTAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Triptych “Madonna
and Child with Sts. Francis and Anthony” 1467 by Antonio Aquili aka <span style="color: red;">Antoniazzo Romano </span>(about 1435-40/1508)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"Antoniazzo
here opens to modern perspective solutions that he combines with traditional
values of Roman medieval period: majestic, yet intensely human is the image
of the Virgin Mary cuddling the baby, firmly planted on the ground are the
Saints at her sides standing out on the precious golden background almost like
statues" (Anna Cavallaro)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Under the
altar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S. Deodato’s body</i> brought from
the catacombs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the apse
wooden choir of 1504<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3<sup>rd</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes maybe
by Giovanni Antonio Bazzi aka <span style="color: red;">Sodoma</span> (1477/1549)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Nativity"
maybe by Bernardino di Betto aka <span style="color: red;">Pinturicchio</span>
(1454/1513)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139977"><span lang="IT">S. Maria della Valle</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">1794/1851 <span style="color: red;">Carlo
Colombi<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Polychrome
wooden statue carved during the twelfth century "Our Lady of Perpetual
Help"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139978"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Monastery
of St. Scholastica</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It is the only
monastery surviving earthquakes and Saracen destruction of the thirteen small
monasteries originally built at the behest of St. Benedict (480/547) in the
valley of Subiaco<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In Subiaco
St. Benedict began and gradually perfected the kind of monastic life presented
in his Rule, whose first draft dates from this period<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In 529 St.
Benedict left Subiaco to go to Cassino<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Until the
end of the twelfth century it was the only monastery of Subiaco, rebuilt and
consecrated by Pope Benedict VII (974/983) with the name of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Monastery of St. Benedict and St.
Scholastica<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Originally
it was called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Monastery of St. Sylvester</i>
and got its current name during the fourteenth century <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Complex of
buildings built in different periods and styles:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">ENTRANCE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Writing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ora et Labora </i>(pray and work), with structures
built during the twentieth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FIRST
CLOISTER<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1580/1689
also called, inappropriately, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Renaissance
Cloister<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SECOND CLOISTER<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Fourteenth
century, also called, inappropriately, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gothic
Cloister</i> with "Flamboyant Arch" of the fifteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">THIRD
CLOISTER<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It is known
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cosmatesque Cloister</i>, signed by the
Roman marble worker <span style="color: red;">Jacopo il Vecchio</span>, son of
Lorenzo di Tebaldo, who had begun the works probably before 1210<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">His son <span style="color: red;">Cosma</span>, from whom the art of Roman marble had its name,
after his father's death, around 1240, together with his sons <span style="color: red;">Luca</span> and <span style="color: red;">Jacopo</span>
continued and completed the construction<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The BELL
TOWER dates back to 1052/53<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The present
CHURCH, the last of five churches stratified over the centuries, dates back to
1769/76 designed by <span style="color: red;">Giacomo Quarenghi </span>(1744/1817)
from Bergamo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">He was a
pupil of Paolo Posi and later became famous as the architect of the czars in
St. Petersburg<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Of the
original church, dating back to the beginning of the thirteenth century,
Quarenghi retained entirely the outer walls and built his new church inside<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"He
reduced to clear proportionality the perspective of longitudinal baroque
churches, transforming the side chapels in niches inscribed in the geometric
frame of pilasters, under a vaulted ceiling that ensures clear and uniform
illumination" (Giulio Carlo Argan)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Restructuring
1851/52 by <span style="color: red;">Giacomo Monaldi </span>(1819/1905) who
designed the apse supported by pillars and columns covered with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">scagliola</i>, a type of fine plaster that
mimics marble, in this case with the color of peach blossom<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"Here
was built the new solution with niches inspired by Palladio, which appeared to
be Quarenghi’s idea, even if it introduced in the interior a sort of spatial
illusion, in contrast to the clarity of the typical architecture of Quarenghi”
(Claudio Giumelli)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paintings
of the seventeenth century by <span style="color: red;">Vincenzo Manenti </span>(1600/74),
<span style="color: red;">Pompeo De Ferrari<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1;">Paintings of the </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">end of the sixteenth century by <span style="color: red;">Marcello da Piacenza</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the
vault of the narthex there are frescoes with "Stories of St.
Benedict" about 1430 by the <span style="color: red;">school of Umbria-Marche
regions</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the entrance
room "Two marble columns" from the Villa of Nero<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The MONASTERY
had the period of greatest splendor between 1000 and 1200<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In 1465 the
two German clergymen A. Pannartz and C. Sweynheym installed here the first
Italian typography, that enriched the library, already existing, with incunabula
and books of great value<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The LIBRARY
is now located on the north side of the Gothic cloister<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It houses
more than 100,000 volumes, 440 manuscripts and 213 incunabula<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The dining
hall is located in the west side of the Cosmatesque Cloister, once surmounted by
the dormitory<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139979"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Monastery
of St. Benedict</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Also called
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sacro Speco</i>, Sacred Grotto<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was
built at the end of the twelfth century above the cave where St. Benedict spent
three years of hermit life<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It is embedded
in the rock overlooking the valley and it consists of two churches one on top
of the other, chapels and caves entirely painted in different periods<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CORRIDOR, later
hall of the old chapter house, with many frescoes of the <span style="color: red;">school of Pietro Vannucci aka Perugino </span>(about
1450/1523)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139980"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Upper
Church</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was
built mid-fourteenth cemtury<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Columns"
from the Villa of Nero<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FIRST BAY<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes
"Stories of Jesus" fourteenth century by the <span style="color: red;">Sienese
school</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SECOND BAY<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On the lower
part of the walls frescoes with "Stories of St. Benedict" about 1430 by
the <span style="color: red;">school of Umbria-Marche regions </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TRANSEPT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On the
right two chapels interconnected with "Stories of saints" about 1430 by
the <span style="color: red;">school of Umbria-Marche regions</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">ALTAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rebuilt in the
nineteenth century with original altar front and columns of the thirteenth
century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SACRISTY<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes of
the seventeenth century by <span style="color: red;">Ottaviano Nelli da Gubbio </span>(1375/1444)
and <span style="color: red;">Vincenzo Manenti </span>(1600/74)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Board
"Madonna with Child" of the <span style="color: red;">school of
Bernardino di Betto aka Pinturicchio </span>(1454/1513)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">COURTYARD
OF THE CROWS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">So called
for the miracle of the crow that carried away the poisoned bread from Brother
Fiorenzo for St. Benedict<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139981"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Lower
Church</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Chapels
built into the rock at several levels<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paintings
of the fifteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paintings
by <span style="color: red;">Magister Conxolus </span>(second half of the
thirteenth century) about 1280 belonging to the popular Roman school that had
its highest representative in Pietro Cavallini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"In the
naive paintings of Magister Conxolus is the freshness of art that, by its own
power of observation, begins to come out of the darkness and face the light, watching
life and taking it directly as model" (Hermanin)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SMALL
CHAPEL OF St. ROMANO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Paintings
by <span style="color: red;">Magister Conxolus </span>and <span style="color: red;">Vincenzo Manenti </span>(1600/74)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SACRO SPECO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sacred
Grotto in English. Covered by a wall of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cipollino</i>
marble from the Villa of Nero<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Statue
of St. Benedict" 1657 by <span style="color: red;">Ercole Antonio Raggi </span>(1624/86)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The spiral
staircase leads to the ATRIUM with frescoes of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries by <span style="color: red;">Magister Conxolus </span>and of the
fifteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CHAPEL OF
St. GREGORY THE GREAT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Also known
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">CHAPEL OF THE ANGELS</i> with
Byzantine frescoes of the early thirteenth century including on the right
"St. Francis" painted in 1223 during the time Francis was in Subiaco<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><i>"An
anonymous painter captures the conventional patterns of Byzantine language; in
a true representation of human and dignified sweetness, designed in a drawn style,
he painted the oldest image of St. Francis known to us, highlighting some of
the possibilities implicit in the Byzantine classicism, development toward a
renewed naturalism" (Carlo Bertelli, Giuliano Briganti, Antonio Giuliano)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SCALA SANTA<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Holy Stairs
in English. So named because it was built on the route of the path that St.
Benedict walked up to the Sacro Speco<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes:
"Triumph of Death", "Monk shows three young people what happens
to human bodies after death in three different phases" "Baptism of
Jesus", "Massacre of the Innocents" and "Saints" by
the <span style="color: red;">Sienese school</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">At the end
of the stairs CHAPEL OF OUR LADY of the fourteenth century with frescoes of the
<span style="color: red;">Sienese school</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CAVE OF THE
SHEPHERDS<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Here St.
Benedict would come to educate shepherds<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"Madonna
and two saints" Byzantine fresco of the eighth century, the oldest
painting of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sacro Speco</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TERRACE AND
ROSE GARDEN<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frescoes by
<span style="color: red;">Vincenzo Manenti </span>(1600/74) and fresco with
"St. Benedict" of the thirteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-88647778332359073582020-11-16T06:53:00.007-08:002020-11-16T06:53:47.430-08:00SEGNI<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 668 m (2,200 feet). 9,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
originally called <i>Signia</i>, ancient
city of the <i>Volsci</i> people, conquered
by the king of Rome Tarquin the Proud. The city was always faithful to Rome<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Long
stretches of the TWO BOUNDARY WALLS (about 5 km - 3.1 miles - long) are still
visible: the outer wall is the oldest, late sixth century BC, whereas the
internal wall was built at the beginning of the fifth century BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Fief of the
Counts of Segni later known as Conti. It later belonged to the families Sforza
Barberini and Sforza Cesarini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was the
summer home of many popes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
destroyed by bombing during the Second World War<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Every
second Sunday of August, the four districts compete in the <i>Giostra Maialetto</i> (tournament of the piglet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139968"><span lang="EN-US">Cathedral</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built during the tenth century in Romanesque style and rebuilt in the years 1626/57<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">FAÇADE 1817
by <span style="color: red;">Giuseppe Valadier </span>(1762/1839)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Below the
left side there's a stretch of the old city walls<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the dome
"Coronation of Mary and Evangelists" by <span style="color: red;">Frà
Antonio Courtois</span> (brother of Jacques Courtois aka Borgognone)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1<sup>st</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Bust
of St. Bruno" with a relic of the saint<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">On the
sides "Stories of St. Bruno" by <span style="color: red;">Lazzaro Baldi
</span>(about 1624/1703)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">RIGHT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna
and Child with Sts. </span><span lang="IT">Dominic and Catherine of Siena"
by Pietro Berrettini aka <span style="color: red;">Pietro da Cortona </span>(1597/1669)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">LEFT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Glorification
of the Cross" by <span style="color: red;">Jacques Courtois aka Borgognone </span>(1628/79)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139969"><span lang="EN-US">Saracen
Gate</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Part of the
walls of the sixth/fifth century BC with restorations carried out later<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139970"><span lang="EN-US">Acropolis</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rectangular
building shaping the fence of a temple built around 250 BC, identified as the <i>Temple of Juno Moneta</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Now in
the middle cella is the Church of St. Peter of the thirteenth century, restored
in the eighteenth and nineteenth century</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-18909519638107350072020-11-16T06:52:00.005-08:002020-11-16T06:52:55.246-08:00SARACINESCO<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 908 m (3,000 feet). 172 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Placed as a
castle above a steep mountaintop<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Maybe it
was originally populated, in the ninth or tenth century AD, by a handful of
Saracens and, curiously, still the facial features of many inhabitants of the
town recall the features of people from the Middle East<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139966"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Monti
Ruffi</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ruffi
Mountains<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Range
between the Aniene River (east) and its tributary Torrente Fiumicino (west)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Formed by
limestones of the Cretaceous and Miocene eras, with a strongly karstic
conformation<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Highest
peak: MONTE COSTASOLE 1,251 m (4,100 feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Other
peaks: MONTE CERASOLO 1,194 m (3,900 feet) and MONTE MACCHIA 1,135 m (3,700
feet)<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-71974830306260686462020-11-16T06:52:00.000-08:002020-11-16T06:52:10.045-08:00SANTA SEVERA<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Sea level. 700 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It is the
only small town included in the area of the municipality of Santa Marinella<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It extends
for about 3 km (1.9 miles). The oldest part of town was built in the 1930s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Site of of
the ancient <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">PYRGI</i> (from Greek <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pyrgoi</i> = towers), seaport of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Caere</i> along with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Alsium</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It used to
trade for centuries especially with the Greek colonies and Greece itself with heyday
period in the years 600/500 BC<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was the
famous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shrine of Leucothea</i> whose
treasure was plundered in 384 BC by Dionysius of Syracuse<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The city
was later abandoned and Rome founded here a fortified colony in 200 BC <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139958"><span lang="IT">Castello di Santa Severa or Castello
di S. Spirito</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St.
Severa Castle or Holy Spirit Castle<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was built
by the Counts of Tuscia and it was mentioned by the sources for the first time
in 1068 when the Norman Gerard of Galeria donated it to the monks of Farfa who
owned it until 1130<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In 1166 it
was the residence of the Genoese Bailiffs and later passed to the monks of St.
Paul, to the Orsini family, to the Anguillara family and to the Apostolic
Camera who had excommunicated the Anguillaras in 1465 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Finally in
1471 it was donated to the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Ospedale
di S. Spirito</span></span> (Hospital of the Holy Spirit)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was a
place of long stops for popes such as Leo X Medici (1513/21), Paul III Farnese
(1534/49), Urban VIII Barberini (1623/44) and scholars while traveling between
Rome and the north<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Classic quadrangular
shape with towers at the corners and triple ring of walls built between 1300s
and 1600s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SARACEN
TOWER cylindrical keep of the twelfth century but rebuilt during the sixteenth
century, with the function of sighting the frequent Saracen invasions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">There are remains
of walls of a Roman fort (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">castrum</i>) and
Etruscan elements<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It houses
the MUSEO DEL MARE E DELLA NAVIGAZIONE ANTICA (Museum of the Sea and Ancient
Navigation) formerly <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Civic Archaeological
Museum of Santa Marinella</i> established in 1993 for educational purpose, dedicated
to the theme of sailing in antiquity through the Mediterranean<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SEVEN ROOMS
with over 100 Etruscan, Roman and medieval pieces, educational services and
laboratories<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Scale
reconstruction of the hold of a Roman ship of the first century BC fully loaded<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Reconstruction
of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hydraulic pump</i> installed on
board of ancient ships that would have expelled 210 liters of water per minute<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">There is also
a sailing simulator for ships with square sails<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139959"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Archaeological
Site of Pyrgi</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sacred area
of about 6,000 m² (1.5 acres)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Remains of
the SANCTUARY OF LEUCOTHEA bounded by a sacred precinct (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">temenos</i>) with two temples side by side<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Greek
sources say they were dedicated to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leucothea-Ilizia</i>
while Etruscan inscriptions only mention the name of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uni</i> (Juno):<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139960"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Temple
A</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 460
BC, layout with three cellas parallel at the back and preceded by a colonnade
between the extensions of the side walls, in a pattern typical of sacred Etruscans
buildings <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The columns
were originally made out of plastered tufa and the capitals were in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">peperino</i> stone<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Both short
sides were decorated with an open pediment with reliefs, of which the most
lavish and outstanding was undoubtedly the rear one with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myth of the Seven against Thebes</i> rebuilt
at <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Villa Giulia</span></span> where there is
also the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Female Head</i>, maybe
representing Thesan Leucothea<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Leucothea
was the “White Goddess of the Sea”, called Thesan by the Etruscans <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139961"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Temple
B</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">About 500
BC, Greek type with one long cella surrounded by four columns on the front side
and six on the lateral sides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On the two
pediments there were representations of the myth of Hercules<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139962"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sacred
area C</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Dedicated
to the "chthonic" cult or of the underworld where the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">three gold foils of Pyrgi</i> today at Villa
Giulia were found <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Independent
small sanctuary, with a cylindrical altar of gray tuff, a well and a second
altar in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">peperino</i> stone<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139963"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Building
of 20 cells</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Parallel to
the long side of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">temenos</i>. 20
cells remain intended for priestesses of the goddess that Servius recalls,
citing Lucilius, to be the famous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Scorta Pyrgensia</i>,
ie the "Prostitutes of Pyrgi"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139964"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Antiquarium</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Partial
reconstruction of the terracotta decorations on the upper parts of the temples<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">"High
relief of temple B with Heracles fighting Hydra assisted by Athena"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Also
red-figure Attic pottery of the fifth century BC, black-figure pottery, votive
materials and other valuable objects<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-44829121793112340582020-11-16T06:48:00.005-08:002020-11-16T06:48:39.605-08:00SANTA MARINELLA<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Sea level. 16,500 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Seaside
resort extending at the sides of the Via Aurelia for 4 km (2.5 miles) until
behind Capo Linaro<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It
corresponds to the <i>Statio Punicum</i>,
one of the ports of the nearby town of <i>Caere</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Among the
findings visible today there is a "Roman Stele" and TWO ANCIENT ROMAN
BRIDGES<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In Santa
Marinella sojourned Roberto Rossellini and Ingrid Bergman, Farouk of Egypt in
the early years of exile and Guglielmo Marconi who performed here some
experiments<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139955"><span lang="EN-US">Castello
Odescalchi</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Odescalchi
Castle<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built in the fifteenth century on the remains of a Roman villa, maybe owned by
the jurist Ulpianus<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It incorporates
the old watch tower to spot Saracens incursions<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Since 1887 it
is owned by the Odescalchi family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139956"><span lang="IT">Villa La Saracena</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<span lang="IT" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">1954
masterpiece by <span style="color: red;">Luigi Moretti </span>(1907/73)</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-31198006112493997162020-11-16T06:47:00.005-08:002020-11-16T06:47:50.116-08:00SACROFANO<p><i><span lang="EN-US">Altitude 260 m (850 feet). 6,300 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Medieval town
on the slopes of a conical hill (Monte Musino 376 m - 1250 feet) on top of
which there are traces of an ancient round building. It was maybe the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Arae Mutiae</i> from which there is a
beautiful view<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
earliest records of the city date back to the eighth century. It was property
of the Orsini family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Original
name <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Scrofano</i> perhaps due to the breeding
of pigs (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">scrofa</i> is female pig in
Italian), favored by the presence of oaks producing acorns in the area<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Current
name due to a false etymology: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sacro fano</i>
= sacred temple<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">From the area
near the town comes part of the mosaic floor of the <span class="BookmarksCarattere"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;">Round Hall</span></span> of the Vatican
Museums<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Inside the
village JEWISH GHETTO the only one in the province of Rome except the one in Rome
itself. The Jewish community has however abandoned it for some decades now<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Important
remains of WALLS with door made of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">peperino</i>
stone and TOWN HALL of 1707<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839697"></a><a name="_Toc441139952"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839697;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">S. Giovanni
Battista</span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc429839697;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc441139952;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Baskerville;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St.
John the Baptist<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Medieval
foundation, rebuilt in the late 1400s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The bell
tower was built in the twelfth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the apse
there is a very much ruined fresco with "Assumption" by the <span style="color: red;">Roman school of the end of the sixteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139953"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">S.
Biagio</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">St.
Blaise<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1704,
gilded wooden ceiling with three large canvas embedded<o:p></o:p></span></p>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-41419172249227359852020-11-16T06:47:00.000-08:002020-11-16T06:47:00.879-08:00S. GREGORIO DA SÀSSOLA<p><i><span lang="IT">Altitude
420 m (1,370 feet). </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">1,450 abitanti</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is
located on a spur of the PRENESTINI MOUNTAINS with medieval section in the southwest
area of town and section built in the seventeenth century in the northeast area<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The village
was maybe built above the ancient city of <i>Aesula</i>
or <i>Saxula</i>. The Italian translation of
the ancient name was added to the modern name in 1870<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
mentioned in the sources for the first time in 1249 as property of the monks of
Subiaco<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was property
of the Colonna family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The northeast
part (Borgo Pio) is an interesting example of urban planning of the seventeenth
century, built after the plague of 1656 for sanitary reasons by Carlo Pio di
Savoia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139950"><span lang="EN-US">Castello
Brancaccio</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Brancaccio
Castle<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Almost
completely rebuilt over the ancient castle of the Colonna family<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frescoes by
<span style="color: red;">Federico Zuccari </span>(about 1542/1609) and his
school<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was transferred
to the municipality in 1989<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The PALAZZO
COMUNALE is connected with the castle with an overpass</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-41387092234556388982020-11-16T06:45:00.005-08:002020-11-16T06:45:40.234-08:00ROCCA PRIORA<p><i><span lang="IT">Altitude
768 m (2,520 feet). </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">11,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It belonged
to the Annibaldi family, to the Savellis and eventually passed to the Camera
Apostolica (Apostolic Chamber) in the late 1500s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The village
is surrounded by wonderful chestnut trees<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139947"><span lang="EN-US">Baronial
Palace</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Formerly Rocca
Savelli (Fortress of the Savelli family), now it is the Town Hall<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was rebuilt
in 1880 by <span style="color: red;">Virginio Vespignani </span>(1808/82)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839693"></a><a name="_Toc441139948"><span lang="EN-US">S. Maria
Assunta in Cielo</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Mary of the Assumption<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
built at the end of the fifteenth century for the Savelli family on the spot
which tradition assigns to the <i>TEMPLE OF
GODDESS FORTUNA</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Interior restructured
in 1914, exterior in 1930<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Transept
and apse date back to the fifteenth century<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Fresco
in the apse painted in 1970</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-18856114551201692472020-11-16T06:39:00.000-08:002020-11-16T06:39:04.247-08:00ROCCA DI PAPA<p><i><span lang="IT">Altitude
680 m (2,230 feet). </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">14,000 inhabitants</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The first
name was <i>Castrum Montis Albanis</i> and
it had its current name in the twelfth century thanks to Pope Eugenius III
(1145/53)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc429839688"></a><a name="_Toc441139940"><span lang="EN-US">S. Maria
Assunta in Cielo</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">St.
Mary of the Assumption<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1664
started maybe by <span style="color: red;">Antonio Del Grande </span>(about
1625/79) for Cardinal Girolamo Colonna and finished 1754 by <span style="color: red;">Pietro Passalacqua </span>(1690/1748) and <span style="color: red;">Domenico Gregorini </span>(1692/1777)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It collapsed
in 1814 as a result of the earthquake of 1806<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Rebuilt in
1845 by <span style="color: red;">Domenico Palmucci</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was destroyed
again in 1944, this time by the bombing of the Allied Forces, and it was rebuilt
in 1949<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">COUNTER
FAÇADE<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Our
Lady of the Immaculate Conception and Saints" by <span style="color: red;">Luigi
Garzi </span>(1638/1721), a pupil of Andrea Sacchi and later influenced by
Carlo Maratta<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"S.
Vincent Ferrer" by <span style="color: red;">Lorenzo Masucci </span>(?/1785)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">RIGHT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"St. Charles
Borromeo giving communion to people affected by plague" 1854 by <span style="color: red;">Domenico Toietti </span>(known 1840/62) artist of Rocca di
Papa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">MAIN ALTAR<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Stucco
relief "Glory of Angels" 1831 by <span style="color: red;">Giuseppe
Pacetti </span>pupil of Bertel Thorvaldsen<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">LEFT TRANSEPT
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Assumption"
1739 by <span style="color: red;">Corrado Giaquinto </span>(1703/66) for Cardinal
Pietro Ottoboni<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">1<sup>st</sup>
CHAPEL ON THE LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Madonna"
of the fourteenth century maybe by the Sienese school<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">"Salvator
Mundi" first half of the sixteenth century maybe by Pietro Bonaccorsi aka <span style="color: red;">Perin del Vaga </span>(1501/47)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139941"><span lang="EN-US">Geophysical
Museum</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Established
in 2005 in an area called Vivaro, near the ancient Colonna Fortress<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IT">Astronomical Observatory "Franco
Fuligni"<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139942"><span lang="IT">Monte Cavo</span></a><span lang="IT"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="Traduzionedeltitolo"><span lang="EN-US">Mount
Cavo<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">949 m
(3,113 feet) high. It was the sacred <i>Mons
Albanus</i> for the ancient Romans<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ancient
place of worship at the TEMPLE OF JUPITER OF THE LAZIO REGION, <i>Iuppiter Latiaris</i>, of which absolutely
nothing is left<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139943"><span lang="EN-US">ON
THE EASTERN SLOPES</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Sanctuary
of the Madonna del Tufo with "Madonna" by Antonio Aquili aka <span style="color: red;">Antoniazzo Romano </span>(about 1435-40/1508)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US"><i>"Undisputed
leader in the Roman artistic scene of the fifteenth century and continuously active
in Rome throughout the second half of the century until the turn of the
sixteenth century, by which time the painting scene was turning into the modern
language of the Renaissance of Raphael and Michelangelo" (Anna Cavallaro)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139944"><span lang="EN-US">ON
THE WESTERN SLOPES</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">CONVENT OF PALAZZOLO
near Lake Albano. Eleventh century, rebuilt in mid-1700s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><a name="_Toc441139945"><span lang="EN-US">NEARBY
THE MOUNTAIN</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">VIA SACRA
(Sacred Way)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Still
partly preserved, originally leading to the Temple of Jupiter of the Lazio
Region as branch from Aricia of the Via Appia (Appian Way)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">TOMB CARVED
IN THE ROCK OF PALAZZOLO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">First half
of the second century AD<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Monumental
façade about 40 m (131 feet) large, carved into the rock, topped by a stepped
pyramid and embossed with "Curule chair with scepter and eagle"
framed by "Twelve fasces", six on each side, a sign that it was the
tomb of a consul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It was
these the very fasces which were used by the archaeologist Giacomo Boni as a
model for the symbol of the National Fascist Party of Benito Mussolini<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Inside
there is a crypt of 2.60 x 2.26 m (8.5 x 7.4 feet)</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2174372392571603279.post-12542228253342407682020-11-16T06:37:00.001-08:002020-11-16T06:37:08.057-08:00ROCCA DI CAVE<p><i><span lang="IT">Altitude
933 m (3,050 feet). </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">385 inhabitants. 10 km (6.2 miles) from
Cave</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One of the smallest
Italian municipality for number of residents<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc441139938"><span lang="EN-US">Geopaleontological
Museum</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Inside the
ancient fortress of the eleventh century which also served as a watchtower<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is named
after the geologist Ardito Desio<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 110%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">It
documents the slow changes that led to the current shape of the Lazio region</span></span>David Macchihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03680152527192773532noreply@blogger.com0